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Often appears with: conquest, plunder, and captives · military discipline and training · siege and fortification · strategy and the aims of war · supply, logistics, and encampment · naval warfare and sea power · arms, armor, and machines · mobilization and recruitment · fate, destiny, and necessity · courage and cowardice · treaties, truces, and peacemaking · diplomacy and embassies
Usually: narrative (1442) · detachment (744) · sudden reversal of fortune (270) · argument (247) · confronting death (225) · the test or trial (203) · wonder (202) · curiosity (157) · crisis of belief (139) · indignation (124)
“This battle with Mr. Covey was the turning-point in my career as a slave.” Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an Amer · insight
“It was a glorious resurrection, from the tomb of slavery, to the heaven of freedom.” Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an Amer · vivid
“From this time I was never again what might be called fairly whipped, though I remained a slave four years afterwards.” Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an Amer · observation
“Behold a conquest gain’d without a fight. / Occasion offers, and I stand prepar’d; / There lies our way; be thou upon the guard, / And look around, while I securely go, / And hew a passage thro’ the sleeping foe.” Virgil, The Aeneid · vivid
“O mortals, blind in fate, who never know To bear high fortune, or endure the low!” Virgil, The Aeneid · insight
“For your souls' health, I'll absolution give So, though you die, blest martyrs shall you live, Thrones you shall win in the great Paradis.” Anonymous (Old French epic), The Song of Roland · precept
“When I implored you, comrade, you were wrathful. Were the King here, we had not borne such damage. Nor should we blame those with him there, his army.” Anonymous (Old French epic), The Song of Roland · precept
“See beforehand, a league from us or two, / From the highways dust rising in our view; / Pagans are there, and many them, too. / Canter therefore! Vengeance upon them do!” Anonymous (Old French epic), The Song of Roland · precept
“For Charlemagne a great marvel God planned: / Making the sun still in his course to stand.” Anonymous (Old French epic), The Song of Roland · insight
“Then turns his eyes towards the Orient, Calls upon God with heartiest intent:” Anonymous (Old French epic), The Song of Roland · observation
“In the admiral is much great virtue found; He strikes Carlun on his steel helm so brown, Has broken it and rent, above his brow, Through his thick hair the sword goes glancing round, A great palm's breadth and more of flesh cuts out, So that all bare the bone is, in that wound.” Anonymous (Old French epic), The Song of Roland · vivid
“Saint Gabriel once more to him comes down, And questions him "Great King, what doest thou?” Anonymous (Old French epic), The Song of Roland · observation
The passage explains and quotes Sura VIII on war booty (spoils), framing it as God and the apostle’s, and recounting the believers’ departure, God’s promise of angels, and instructions for fighting and discipline at battle.
that he might thereby cleanse you, and cause the pollution of Satan to pass from you, and that he might gird up your hearts, and stablish your feet by it: When thy Lord spake unto the angels, "I will be with you: therefore stablish ye the faithful. I will cast a dread into the hearts of the infidels." Strike off their heads then, and strike off from them every finger-tip. This, because they have opposed God and his…
Continuing Sura VIII, the text commands battle against infidels, describes God’s role in fighting and punishment, warns against disobedience, and discusses treaties, steadfastness, and the distribution of spoils and prisoners.
But God chose not to chastise them while thou wast with them, nor would God chastise them when they sued for pardon. But because they debarred the faithful from the holy temple, albeit they are not its guardians, nothing is there on their part why God should not chastise them. The Godfearing only are its guardians; but most of them know it not. And their prayer at the house of God is no other than whistling through…
The passage begins Sura XLVII (Muhammad) and commands fighting against those who block God’s way, promises guidance to believers, condemns infidelity, and contrasts paradise rivers with the fire for unbelievers.
In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful WHOSO believe not, and prevent others from the way of God-their works will He cause to miscarry;2 But whoso believe, and do things that are right, and believe in what hath been sent down to MUHAMMAD-for it is the truth from their Lord-their sins will He cancel, and dispose their hearts aright. This-because the infidels followed vanity, while those who believe, fo…
It teaches believers to seek God’s pardon, endure wounds like those at earlier battles, warns against abandoning the faith, and affirms that death and reward are under God’s permission.
And vie in haste for pardon from your Lord, and a Paradise, vast as the Heavens and the Earth, prepared for the God-fearing. Who give alms, alike in prosperity and in success, and who master their anger, and forgive others! God loveth the doers of good. They who, after they have done a base deed or committed a wrong against their own selves, remember God and implore forgiveness of their sins-and who will forgive si…
The passage describes a later battle’s aftermath—confusion, slumber, differing motives, and forgiveness—then gives counsel: be gentle, consult in war affairs, trust God, and address betrayal and resurrection payment.
for the next.47 Then, in order to make trial of you, He turned you to flight from them,-yet hath He now forgiven you; for all-bounteous is God to the faithful- When ye came up the height48 and took no heed of any one, while the Prophet in your rear was calling you to the fight! God hath rewarded you with trouble upon trouble, that ye might learn not to be chagrined at your loss of booty, or at what befel you! God is…
Verses explain setbacks as from oneself and God’s will, describe those who falsely claim they would have fought, deny that the slain on God’s path are dead, and insist the hypocrites’ dissimulation will be exposed.
a reverse hath befallen you,50 the like of which ye had before inflicted, say ye, "Whence is this?" SAY: It is from yourselves. For God hath power over all things. And that which befel you on the day when the armies met, was certainly by the will of God, and that he might know the faithful, and that he might know the hypocrites! And when the word was "Advance, fight on the path of God, or drive back the foe,"-they s…
Pepys records a run of September–October 1664 entries: celebrating wealth and gifts, attending plays, describing storms, tracking war news against the Dutch, observing fires, and hearing about French and Dutch military movements.
not be known, and were roundly beaten out of the field, and some deeply wounded and bruised; till at last the weavers went out tryumphing, calling 100l. for a butcher. 28th. I am overjoyed in hopes that upon this month's account I shall find myself worth 1000l. besides the rich present of two silver and gilt flaggons, which Mr. Gauden did give me the other day. My Lord Sandwich newly gone to sea, and he did before…
Pepys reports the naval victory over the Dutch (June 3, 1665), listing commanders killed or wounded, then notes the plague arriving in the City and the town’s accelerating fear, alongside social and political reactions to the battle.
Victory over the Dutch, June 3, 1665. This day they engaged: the Dutch neglecting greatly the opportunity of the wind they had of us; by which they lost the benefit of their fire-ships. The Earl of Falmouth, Muskerry, and Mr. Richard Boyle [Second son to the Earl of Burlington.] killed on board the Duke's ship, the Royall Charles, with one shot: their blood and brains flying in the Duke's face; and the head of Mr…
After Whit-Sunday news, Pepys records conflicting reports: a ship disabled and Dutch fighting details, reports of flags shot down and fire-ship casualties, and accusations of miscommunication between the Prince and the fleet.
Thursday, and ran from them; but from that hour to this hath not heard one gun, nor any news of any fight. Having put the soldiers on board, I home. 3rd (Lord's-day; Whit-sunday). Up; and by water to White Hall, and there met with Mr. Coventry, who tells me the only news from the fleet is brought by Captain Elliott, of the Portland, which, by being run on board by the Guernsey, was disabled from staying abroad: so…
In a detailed narration called “THE FIGHT,” the Dutch fleet is shown letting slip anchors, dividing squadrons, and fighting against the English; Pepys records casualties, the King’s gold to Daniel, and uncertainty over the outcome until the Prince’s fleet appears.
THE FIGHT. How we found the Dutch fleet at anchor on Friday half seas over, between Dunkirke and Ostend, and made them let slip their anchors. They about ninety, and we less than sixty. We fought them, and put them to the run, till they met with about sixteen sail of fresh ships, and so bore up again. The fight continued till night, and then again the next morning from five till seven at night. And so, too, yest…
On the 7th, Pepys learns the situation has worsened: the English are said to be beaten, ships lost, the Prince wrecked on the Galloper, and commanders killed, forcing him to draft a sad letter instead of a triumphal one.
appear but thirty-six in all of the Dutch fleet left at the end of the voyage when they run home. The joy of the City was this night exceeding great. 7th. Up betimes, and to my office about business, (Sir W. Coventry having sent me word that he is gone down to the fleet to see how matters stand, and to be back again speedily); and with the same expectation of congratulating ourselves with the victory that I had yes…
At St. James’s-day Pepys hears cannon from the Park during the naval battle, dines with the court, reflects on conduct and profit, and later records reports of ship actions and the duke’s taste and supper conversations.
cannot get clear of the River, but expect the first wind to be out, and then to be sure to fight. The Queene and Maids of Honour are at Tunbridge. 23rd. All full of expectation of the fleet's engagement, but it is not yet. Sir W. Coventry says they are eighty-nine men-of- war, but one fifth-rate; and that the Sweepstakes, which carries forty guns. They are most infinitely manned. He tells me the Loyal London, Si…
Corinth and Corcyra fight a large sea battle near Corcyra, with Athens on the Corcyraean right wing hampering Corinth due to restrictive orders, and each side claims victory as the action splits and becomes a crush like land warfare.
the Corinthians on the mainland without their allies. The barbarians flocked in large numbers to their assistance, the inhabitants of this part of the continent being old allies of theirs. When the Corinthian preparations were completed, they took three days’ provisions and put out from Chimerium by night, ready for action. Sailing with the dawn, they sighted the Corcyraean fleet out at sea and coming towards them. …
Aristeus and Potidaea’s allies plan to fight Athenians between the isthmus and Olynthus, but after battles Athenians build walls to blockade Potidaea by land and sea; Aristeus later advises escape and eludes guards to continue fighting elsewhere.
horsemen, the followers of Philip and Pausanias. With these sailed seventy ships along the coast. Advancing by short marches, on the third day they arrived at Gigonus, where they encamped. Meanwhile the Potidæans and the Peloponnesians with Aristeus were encamped on the side looking towards Olynthus on the isthmus, in expectation of the Athenians, and had established their market outside the city. The allies had cho…
Athens builds the Long Walls toward Phalerum and Piraeus; Phocians raid Doris, Spartans assist, then Athens and Lacedaemonians fight at Tanagra and at Oenophyta, and Athens expands to Boeotia and Phocis.
and, placing the light troops round in a circle, stoned all who had gone in. Corinth here suffered a severe blow. The bulk of her army continued its retreat home. About this time the Athenians began to build the long walls to the sea, that towards Phalerum and that towards Piraeus. Meanwhile the Phocians made an expedition against Doris, the old home of the Lacedaemonians, containing the towns of Boeum, Kitinium, an…
During the Plataea fighting, Thebans repel initial assaults but flee as Plataeans counterattack in darkness and rain, causing many deaths and trapping surviving Thebans into unconditional surrender.
would also be at a disadvantage from their enemy’s knowledge of the locality. So they made their assault at once, and came to close quarters as quickly as they could. The Thebans, finding themselves outwitted, immediately closed up to repel all attacks made upon them. Twice or thrice they beat back their assailants. But the men shouted and charged them, the women and slaves screamed and yelled from the houses and pe…
Archidamus invades Attica around eighty days after the Theban attempt on Plataea, camps at Eleusis and the Thriasian plain, ravages the Athenian demes to Acharnae, and stays near Athens to lure Athenians into battle—while Oenoe’s siege failure drives broader invasion.
is said, expected that the Athenians would shrink from letting their land be wasted, and would make their submission while it was still uninjured; and this was why he waited. But after he had assaulted Oenoe, and every possible attempt to take it had failed, as no herald came from Athens, he at last broke up his camp and invaded Attica. This was about eighty days after the Theban attempt upon Plataea, just in the mi…
Thucydides adds concurrent campaigns: Athenians fight Chalcidians and Bottiaeans near Spartolus with heavy infantry and cavalry, suffer routing and losses, and in winter oversee blockades while Potidaea’s terms conclude the year.
have saved them. As it was, there is also a story of heavy rain and thunder having come on by which the fire was put out and the danger averted. Failing in this last attempt the Peloponnesians left a portion of their forces on the spot, dismissing the rest, and built a wall of circumvallation round the town, dividing the ground among the various cities present; a ditch being made within and without the lines, from w…
At Stratus, Cnemus and allies assault the Acarnanian town in three divisions; the Chaonians rush ahead, are ambushed and panic, and Cnemus withdraws to the river Anapus and sets up a trophy for the battle.
Amphilochian Argos, and sacking the open village of Limnaea, they advanced to Stratus the Acarnanian capital; this once taken, the rest of the country, they felt convinced, would speedily follow. The Acarnanians, finding themselves invaded by a large army by land, and from the sea threatened by a hostile fleet, made no combined attempt at resistance, but remained to defend their homes, and sent for help to Phormio, …
Phormio exhorts the Athenians, claiming the Peloponnesians are relying on land-style confidence and fear rather than true sea skill, warning them to hold station, maintain order and silence, and fight in well-managed formation.
Peloponnesian vessels. At the moment, however, he saw that they were dispirited by the sight before them, and wishing to refresh their confidence, called them together and spoke as follows: “I see, my men, that you are frightened by the number of the enemy, and I have accordingly called you together, not liking you to be afraid of what is not really terrible. In the first place, the Peloponnesians, already defeated,…
Thucydides describes how Plataeans, waiting for a stormy moonless night, silently scale the Peloponnesian wall, kill sentinels, repel defenders on towers and battlements, and escape during the chaos created by a diversionary sortie.
passing except through the middle. Accordingly on stormy and wet nights the battlements were deserted, and guard kept from the towers, which were not far apart and roofed in above. Such being the structure of the wall by which the Plataeans were blockaded, when their preparations were completed, they waited for a stormy night of wind and rain and without any moon, and then set out, guided by the authors of the enter…
After the first scaling party clears the wall and rears ladders, the main Plataean group crosses an icy, snow-fed ditch toward the road to Thebes, then turns to the hills and reaches Athens with 212 men.
getting a true idea of what was passing and coming to his aid before their comrades who had gone out should have made good their escape and be in safety. Meanwhile the first of the scaling party that had got up, after carrying both the towers and putting the sentinels to the sword, posted themselves inside to prevent any one coming through against them; and rearing ladders from the wall, sent several men up on the t…
Aetolians ambush and counterattack Demosthenes’ forces near Aegitium, killing the archers’ captain and guide Chromon, forcing a rout in ravines and causing heavy Athenian losses including Procles.
and coming on as it retired; and for a long while the battle was of this character, alternate advance and retreat, in both which operations the Athenians had the worst. Still as long as their archers had arrows left and were able to use them, they held out, the light-armed Aetolians retiring before the arrows; but after the captain of the archers had been killed and his men scattered, the soldiers, wearied out with …
Eurylochus marches through Acarnania and into Argos territory to join the Ambraciots at Olpae; Demosthenes and Athenian ships block from sea, and after five days both sides fight a battle with Demosthenes using an ambush.
might not be able to pass through the Acarnanians, and that they might themselves be obliged to fight single-handed, or be unable to retreat, if they wished it, without danger. Meanwhile Eurylochus and his Peloponnesians, learning that the Ambraciots at Olpae had arrived, set out from Proschium with all haste to join them, and crossing the Achelous advanced through Acarnania, which they found deserted by its populat…
Demosthenes captures Idomene by surprise at dawn, killing most Ambraciots by ambush and misleading sentinels with Messenian accents, while survivors flee to the sea and Acarnanians return to Argos.
a Peloponnesian. The number thus slain was about two hundred; the rest escaped into the bordering territory of Agraea, and found refuge with Salynthius, the friendly king of the Agraeans. Meanwhile the Ambraciots from the city arrived at Idomene. Idomene consists of two lofty hills, the higher of which the troops sent on by Demosthenes succeeded in occupying after nightfall, unobserved by the Ambraciots, who had mea…
Demosthenes organizes defense at Pylos with improvised shields and stockaded galleys, selects heavy infantry and archers for a likely landing site, and exhorts them to face danger without calculation; the Spartans assault by land and sea under Thrasymelidas.
crossed over before in relief parties, but these last who were left there were four hundred and twenty in number, with their Helot attendants, commanded by Epitadas, son of Molobrus. Meanwhile Demosthenes, seeing the Lacedaemonians about to attack him by sea and land at once, himself was not idle. He drew up under the fortification and enclosed in a stockade the galleys remaining to him of those which had been left …
The narrative explains that the strait between Rhegium and Messina is narrow with strong currents, then recounts a late-day naval fight (thirty-plus vs sixteen Athenian and eight Rhegian ships), losses, and subsequent attempts to attack and move between Messina and Rhegium.
sail; and the narrowness of the passage and the strength of the current that pours in from the vast Tyrrhenian and Sicilian mains, have rightly given it a bad reputation. In this strait the Syracusans and their allies were compelled to fight, late in the day, about the passage of a boat, putting out with rather more than thirty ships against sixteen Athenian and eight Rhegian vessels. Defeated by the Athenians they …
Demosthenes and Cleon land by night on both sides of the Pylos island, attack the arranged Lacedaemonian posts, and use cross-fire tactics; the light troops’ missiles and dust fighting shape the day-long battle.
both sides of the island from the open sea and from the harbour, being about eight hundred strong, and advanced with a run against the first post in the island. The enemy had distributed his force as follows: In this first post there were about thirty heavy infantry; the centre and most level part, where the water was, was held by the main body, and by Epitadas their commander; while a small party guarded the very e…
After initial skirmishing, Lacedaemonians regroup and retreat to the island fort; extended fighting continues in heat and thirst until the Messenians propose a flanking route that brings the defenders under attack from rear.
start in their flight, from the difficult and rugged nature of the ground, in an island hitherto desert, over which the Lacedaemonians could not pursue them with their heavy armour. After this skirmishing had lasted some little while, the Lacedaemonians became unable to dash out with the same rapidity as before upon the points attacked, and the light troops finding that they now fought with less vigour, became more …
Brasidas advances toward Megara after Nisaea’s fall, tries to enter but is refused by rival Megarian factions, then coordinates with Boeotians; cavalry fighting ends without decisive advantage.
surrendered and came out, and the Athenians broke down the long walls at their point of junction with Megara, took possession of Nisaea, and went on with their other preparations. Just at this time the Lacedaemonian Brasidas, son of Tellis, happened to be in the neighbourhood of Sicyon and Corinth, getting ready an army for Thrace. As soon as he heard of the capture of the walls, fearing for the Peloponnesians in Ni…
The Battle of Delium unfolds with Boeotians attacking from a hill and forming deep shield lines, Athens advancing in close combat, then a panic from hidden cavalry breaks Athenian lines into flight; Boeotians hold Delium’s area and negotiate dead.
to be always ready to give battle for the liberty of their own country, and never unjustly to enslave that of others, will not let him go without a struggle.” By these arguments Pagondas persuaded the Boeotians to attack the Athenians, and quickly breaking up his camp led his army forward, it being now late in the day. On nearing the enemy, he halted in a position where a hill intervening prevented the two armies fr…
Brasidas and Perdiccas mount a joint campaign against Arrhabaeus in Lyncus, defeat the Lyncestians in battle, then retreat after Illyrian betrayal and a panic, with Brasidas forming a disciplined retreat to avoid being cut off.
the women and children of the Scionaeans and Mendaeans, and sent over to them five hundred Peloponnesian heavy infantry and three hundred Chalcidian targeteers, all under the command of Polydamidas. Leaving these two towns to prepare together against the speedy arrival of the Athenians, Brasidas and Perdiccas started on a second joint expedition into Lyncus against Arrhabaeus; the latter with the forces of his Maced…
As barbarians mistakenly think Brasidas is fleeing, his picked men hold them off, the enemy tries to surround him in a narrow pass, and Brasidas escapes by splitting forces and reaching Arnisa the next town.
going to do, at a distance, but with those who give way to them are quick enough to display their heroism in pursuit when they can do so without danger.” With this brief address Brasidas began to lead off his army. Seeing this, the barbarians came on with much shouting and hubbub, thinking that he was flying and that they would overtake him and cut him off. But wherever they charged they found the young men ready to…
Brasidas attacks unexpectedly when the Athenian force begins retreating and wheeling, defeats the Athenian center and both wings suffer confusion, and Brasidas is wounded but survives long enough to learn the victory.
the Hellenes. No cowardice then on your part, seeing the greatness of the issues at stake, and I will show that what I preach to others I can practise myself.” After this brief speech Brasidas himself prepared for the sally, and placed the rest with Clearidas at the Thracian gates to support him as had been agreed. Meanwhile he had been seen coming down from Cerdylium and then in the city, which is overlooked from t…
In the battle near Mantinea, Agis withdraws to divert the water in the dispute between Mantineans and Tegeans, then suddenly returns and engages in chaotic shock as cavalry and disciplined ranks matter.
they could. Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians with the Arcadian allies that had joined them, entered the territory of Mantinea, and encamping near the temple of Heracles began to plunder the country. Here they were seen by the Argives and their allies, who immediately took up a strong and difficult position, and formed in order of battle. The Lacedaemonians at once advanced against them, and came on within a stone’s thro…
The armies’ wing composition at Mantinea is described in detail, including elite Sciritae positions, Thracian Brasidas-era forces, Argive trained contingents, and Athenian placement on the extreme left.
the troops; as almost the whole Lacedaemonian army, save for a small part, consists of officers under officers, and the care of what is to be done falls upon many. In this battle the left wing was composed of the Sciritae, who in a Lacedaemonian army have always that post to themselves alone; next to these were the soldiers of Brasidas from Thrace, and the Neodamodes with them; then came the Lacedaemonians themselve…
Agis plans a maneuver to fix right-left overlap fear, but mistakes and noncompliance by officers cause the Sciritae to be attacked in the breach, leading to a decisive rout in one section while others fight stubbornly.
do with religion, but is meant to make them advance evenly, stepping in time, without break their order, as large armies are apt to do in the moment of engaging. Just before the battle joined, King Agis resolved upon the following manoeuvre. All armies are alike in this: on going into action they get forced out rather on their right wing, and one and the other overlap with this adversary’s left; because fear makes e…
The battle ends with Argive allies split and the Athenians escaping due to cavalry, while Lacedaemonians set up trophies and count heavy losses; reinforcements arrive later but the outcome holds.
even waiting to strike a blow, but giving way the moment that they came on, some even being trodden under foot, in their fear of being overtaken by their assailants. The army of the Argives and their allies, having given way in this quarter, was now completely cut in two, and the Lacedaemonian and Tegean right simultaneously closing round the Athenians with the troops that outflanked them, these last found themselve…
Lamachus urges a sudden attack on Syracuse to exploit panic, while Alcibiades sails across Sicily, fails to secure Messina, returns to Rhegium, and helps lead Athenians into Syracuse via a broken postern gate during an assembly.
allies in the war, they might at length attack Syracuse and Selinus; unless the latter came to terms with Egesta and the former ceased to oppose the restoration of Leontini. Lamachus, on the other hand, said that they ought to sail straight to Syracuse, and fight their battle at once under the walls of the town while the people were still unprepared, and the panic at its height. Every armament was most terrible at f…
Aware Syracusan cavalry could harass a landing, the Athenians use a stratagem involving a trusted Catana man to bait a Syracusan attack on their camp, then sail by night to Syracuse and land to seize a position near the Olympieum.
and among other insults asked them whether they had not really come to settle with the Syracusans in a foreign country rather than to resettle the Leontines in their own. Aware of this, the Athenian generals determined to draw them out in mass as far as possible from the city, and themselves in the meantime to sail by night alongshore, and take up at their leisure a convenient position. This they knew they could not…
The Athenians fortify their camp near Syracuse by felling trees, building palisades and a fort at Daskon, breaking the bridge over the Anapus, then organize battle lines while cavalry and infantry skirmish begins.
and found that all the armament had put to sea, turned back and told the infantry, and then all turned back together, and went to the relief of the city. In the meantime, as the march before the Syracusans was a long one, the Athenians quietly sat down their army in a convenient position, where they could begin an engagement when they pleased, and where the Syracusan cavalry would have least opportunity of annoying …
Nicias leads the attack against Syracusan heavy infantry; skirmishing escalates into close combat, thunder and rain alarm the less experienced, the Argives drive Syracusan left, and the Syracusan force is cut and routed with a trophy set up.
we shall have their horse upon us in great numbers. Remember, therefore, your renown, and go boldly against the enemy, thinking the present strait and necessity more terrible than they.” After this address Nicias at once led on the army. The Syracusans were not at that moment expecting an immediate engagement, and some had even gone away to the town, which was close by; these now ran up as hard as they could and, th…
On the morning the Athenians move against Syracuse, Syracusans guard Epipolae and are surprised at disembarkation, leading to Athenian victories at Epipolae and the start of circumvallation walls and counterworks.
hundred, under the command of Diomilus, an exile from Andros, to guard Epipolae, and to be ready to muster at a moment’s notice to help wherever help should be required. Meanwhile the Athenians, the very same morning, were holding a review, having already made land unobserved with all the armament from Catana, opposite a place called Leon, not much more than half a mile from Epipolae, where they disembarked their ar…
As Athenian and Syracusan works develop across Epipolae and the marsh, the Athenians sabotage water pipes and stage a night raid on a stockade, while later crossing marshy ground and suffering deaths including Lamachus.
towers. As the Athenian fleet had not yet sailed round into the great harbour, the Syracusans still commanded the seacoast, and the Athenians brought their provisions by land from Thapsus. The Syracusans now thought the stockades and stonework of their counterwall sufficiently far advanced; and as the Athenians, afraid of being divided and so fighting at a disadvantage, and intent upon their own wall, did not come o…
Gylippus refits and marches from Tarentum toward Himera, recruits troops and the Himeraeans, arrives at Epipolae, and immediately threatens Athenians who are finishing double walls and partial fortifications.
Eighteenth and Nineteenth Years of the War—Arrival of Gylippus at Syracuse—Fortification of Decelea—Successes of the Syracusans After refitting their ships, Gylippus and Pythen coasted along from Tarentum to Epizephyrian Locris. They now received the more correct information that Syracuse was not yet completely invested, but that it was still possible for an army arriving at Epipolae to effect an entrance; and they …
After partial battlefield setbacks, Gylippus improves tactics, attacks again where cavalry can be effective, and drives Athenians back into their lines, enabling Syracusans to extend the cross wall and prevent future investment.
Corinthian fleet was approaching, and sent twenty ships to watch for them, with orders to be on the look-out for them about Locris and Rhegium and the approach to Sicily. Gylippus, meanwhile, went on with the wall across Epipolae, using the stones which the Athenians had laid down for their own wall, and at the same time constantly led out the Syracusans and their allies, and formed them in order of battle in front …
Gylippus and Hermocrates in Syracuse urge a sea-fight against the Athenians, leading to a coordinated night assault on Plemmyrium and a battle where the Athenians initially suffer land success for Gylippus but ultimately win at sea.
operate with him upon the coasts of Laconia, and accordingly sailed to Aegina and there waited for the remainder of his armament, and for Charicles to fetch the Argive troops. In Sicily, about the same time in this spring, Gylippus came to Syracuse with as many troops as he could bring from the cities which he had persuaded to join. Calling the Syracusans together, he told them that they must man as many ships as po…
Syracusans attack Syracuse at once by land under Gylippus and by sea with about eighty ships, skirmishing through the day until they sink a few Athenian vessels and then plan renewed pressure.
be impossible, with the Syracusans in possession of the way out and in, especially as Plemmyrium would be hostile to them, and the mouth of the harbour was not large. With these contrivances to suit their skill and ability, and now more confident after the previous sea-fight, the Syracusans attacked by land and sea at once. The town force Gylippus led out a little the first and brought them up to the wall of the Ath…
Athenians first ravage nearby Syracusan lands, then attack the counterwall with engines, fail, and execute a night move toward Epipolae, taking a fort and briefly gaining footholds.
and take Syracuse, or would lead back the armament instead of frittering away the lives of the Athenians engaged in the expedition and the resources of the country at large. First therefore the Athenians went out and laid waste the lands of the Syracusans about the Anapus and carried all before them as at first by land and by sea, the Syracusans not offering to oppose them upon either element, unless it were with th…
During the night battle at Epipolae, confusion from moonlight, watchwords, and similar paean-singing causes Athenians to attack wrongly and collide with friends, while Syracusans counter and drive them back.
not yet engaged, without relaxing their attack or giving them time to rally, the Boeotians made the first stand against them, attacked them, routed them, and put them to flight. The Athenians now fell into great disorder and perplexity, so that it was not easy to get from one side or the other any detailed account of the affair. By day certainly the combatants have a clearer notion, though even then by no means of a…
Syracusans battle effectively on both water and shore, defeat Athenian wings, capture ships, stop fires meant to burn the fleet, set up trophies, and then plan to close the harbor mouth to trap remaining Athenians.
hollow and recess of the harbour, and killed him and destroyed the ships accompanying him; after which they now chased the whole Athenian fleet before them and drove them ashore. Gylippus seeing the enemy’s fleet defeated and carried ashore beyond their stockades and camp, ran down to the breakwater with some of his troops, in order to cut off the men as they landed and make it easier for the Syracusans to tow off t…
Gylippus and Syracusan leaders respond to the Athenians’ plan, arguing their pride has been shaken, while Syracusans will fight effectively in confined space, exploit desperation, and punish the aggressors to secure Sicily’s freedom.
in their superiority, the unexpected shock to their pride causing them to give way more than their real strength warrants; and this is probably now the case with the Athenians. “With us it is different. The original estimate of ourselves which gave us courage in the days of our unskilfulness has been strengthened, while the conviction superadded to it that we must be the best seamen of the time, if we have conquered…
The Athenians set out to break the harbour barrier under Nicias and the commanders on board, while Syracusans with their fleet spread around the harbour and coordinate land forces to attack and prevent the Athenians’ escape by sea or shore.
her ancient freedom strengthened and confirmed, we shall have achieved no mean triumph. And the rarest dangers are those in which failure brings little loss and success the greatest advantage.” After the above address to the soldiers on their side, the Syracusan generals and Gylippus now perceived that the Athenians were manning their ships, and immediately proceeded to man their own also. Meanwhile Nicias, appalled…
As ships collide in a tightly packed sea fight, both sides exchange missiles then switch to close hand-to-hand boarding, while competing signals and shifting attacks drive confusion and intense fear until Syracusans ultimately put the Athenians to flight.
out from their own camp and sailed straight to the barrier across the mouth of the harbour and to the passage left open, to try to force their way out. The Syracusans and their allies had already put out with about the same number of ships as before, a part of which kept guard at the outlet, and the remainder all round the rest of the harbour, in order to attack the Athenians on all sides at once; while the land for…
The two Athenian divisions march in a hollow square past the ford of the river Anapus, fight Syracusan forces, encamp near the plain, then repeatedly attempt to force the fortified Acraean cliff pass as omens and weather demoralize them.
who are Athenians will raise up again the great power of the state, fallen though it be. Men make the city and not walls or ships without men in them.” As he made this address, Nicias went along the ranks, and brought back to their place any of the troops that he saw straggling out of the line; while Demosthenes did as much for his part of the army, addressing them in words very similar. The army marched in a hollow…
During the night Nicias and Demosthenes abandon the intended route and lead by fires toward the sea opposite Syracuse, splitting into two march groups, then Demosthenes’ division is trapped and attacked at the rivers Cacyparis/Erineus while Nicias arrives later.
long while the Athenians persevered in this fashion, but after advancing for four or five furlongs halted to rest in the plain, the Syracusans also withdrawing to their own camp. During the night Nicias and Demosthenes, seeing the wretched condition of their troops, now in want of every kind of necessary, and numbers of them disabled in the numerous attacks of the enemy, determined to light as many fires as possible…
Peloponnesian allies at Corinth decide to sail first to Chios, then Lesbos, then the Hellespont, sending twenty-one ships across the Isthmus; Athenian suspicion and reinforcements lead to a naval and land melee near Spiraeum, where Alcamenes is killed.
and to order them all to sail to Chios, those which Agis was equipping for Lesbos not excepted. The number of ships from the allied states was thirty-nine in all. Meanwhile Calligeitus and Timagoras did not join on behalf of Pharnabazus in the expedition to Chios or give the money—twenty-five talents—which they had brought with them to help in dispatching a force, but determined to sail afterwards with another force…
A large Athenian expedition under Phrynichus, Onomacles, and Scironides sails from Athens to Miletus, fights and defeats Peloponnesians and Argives, but then retreats after learning of a larger incoming fleet; Peloponnesians later sack Iasus and hand Amorges to Tissaphernes.
with four ships that he had with him, and considered how they could most quietly, either by taking hostages or by some other means, put an end to the conspiracy. While the Chians were thus engaged, a thousand Athenian heavy infantry and fifteen hundred Argives (five hundred of whom were light troops furnished with armour by the Athenians), and one thousand of the allies, towards the close of the same summer sailed f…
The Peloponnesians defeat poorly prepared Athenian forces near Eretria, butcher some soldiers in Eretria, take twenty-two Athenian ships, and then secure revolt of most of Euboea except Oreus held by Athenians.
to the harbour of Athens. Some went on board the ships already afloat, while others launched fresh vessels, or ran to defend the walls and the mouth of the harbour. Meanwhile the Peloponnesian vessels sailed by, and rounding Sunium anchored between Thoricus and Prasiae, and afterwards arrived at Oropus. The Athenians, with revolution in the city, and unwilling to lose a moment in going to the relief of their most im…
Athenian ships at Sestos slip out at night, but are pursued by Mindarus off Elaeus; both sides reposition for battle, then fight as fleets extend flanks near Cynossema with an eventual Athenian rout of the Peloponnesians.
as they were, and, hugging the shore of the Chersonese, coasted along to Elaeus, in order to sail out into the open sea away from the fleet of the enemy. After passing unobserved the sixteen ships at Abydos, which had nevertheless been warned by their approaching friends to be on the alert to prevent their sailing out, at dawn they sighted the fleet of Mindarus, which immediately gave chase. All had not time to get …