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Often appears with: battle and tactics · conquest, plunder, and captives · siege and fortification · military discipline and training · supply, logistics, and encampment · naval warfare and sea power · mobilization and recruitment · strategy and the aims of war · courage and cowardice · fate, destiny, and necessity · religious persecution and toleration · conspiracy and assassination
Usually: narrative (234) · detachment (147) · curiosity (63) · wonder (60) · argument (54) · the test or trial (53) · indignation (30) · confronting death (29) · sudden reversal of fortune (29) · description (23)
“No going to law with nations; cannon are the barristers of Crowns; and the sword, not of justice, but of war, decides the suit.” Thomas Paine, Common Sense · wit
“And the instant, in which such a mode of defence became necessary, all subjection to Britain ought to have ceased; and the independancy of America, should have been considered, as dating its æra from, and published by, the first musket that was fired against her.” Thomas Paine, Common Sense · observation
“One of the most heart-saddening and humiliating scenes I ever witnessed, was the whipping of Old Barney, by Col. Lloyd himself... “Down on your knees!” Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom · vivid
“In the midst of peace, the Roman troops familiarized themselves with the practice of war; and it is prettily remarked by an ancient historian who had fought against them, that the effusion of blood was the only circumstance which distinguished a field of battle from a field of exercise.” Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire · observation
“Happy the blest ages that knew not the dread fury of those devilish engines of artillery, whose inventor I am persuaded is in hell receiving the reward of his diabolical invention, by which he made it easy for a base and cowardly arm to take the life of a gallant gentleman;” Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote · vivid
“There are two roads, my daughters, by which men may reach wealth and honours; one is that of letters, the other that of arms.” Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote · precept
“It is by rugged paths like these they go That scale the heights of immortality, Unreached by those that falter here below.” Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote · vivid
“Corchuelo sat down wearied, and Sancho approaching him said, “By my faith, señor bachelor, if your worship takes my advice, you will never challenge anyone to fence again, only to wrestle and throw the bar, for you have the youth and strength for that; but as for these fencers as they call them, I have heard say they can put the point of a sword through the eye of a needle.” Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote · wit
“I'll gladly lose my head, and ye become not my wife.” Unknown (Middle High German epic tradition), The Nibelungenlied · wit
“Had any wished to buy it at its cost, 'twere well worth a thousand marks.” Unknown (Middle High German epic tradition), The Nibelungenlied · vivid
“When the hot blood gushed from the dragon's wounds and the bold hero and a good bathed him therein, a broad linden leaf did fall betwixt his shoulder blades.” Unknown (Middle High German epic tradition), The Nibelungenlied · vivid
“Hagen bare quite away from him both bow and sword and bounded then to where he found the mark on bold Siegfried's coat.” Unknown (Middle High German epic tradition), The Nibelungenlied · observation
Pepys covers 12th–13th: orders for ships left in the Downes, concern about whether commissioners have arrived, and work cutting crown and C.R. insignia onto flags instead of the state arms.
Kent, and afterwards ambassador to Turkey. Ob. 1689.] whether or no they are come out of London, and then to resolve to-morrow morning of going or not. Which was done. 12th. My Lord give me many orders to make for direction for the ships that are left in the Downes, giving them the greatest charge in the world to bring no passengers with them, when they come after us to Scheveling Bay, excepting Mr. Edward Montagu,…
From 20th–22nd, boats finally get off, storms delay boarding, Pepys records Parliament’s moves against regicides, and then the Duke of York and Duke of Gloucester come aboard, triggering gun salutes and detailed naval assignments.
look upon it as it lay in the portmanteau before it was taken out. My Lord told me, too, that the Duke of York is made High Admiral of England. 17th. Dr. Clerke came to me to tell me that he heard this morning, by some Dutch that are come on board already to see the ships, that there was a Portuguese taken yesterday at the Hague, that had a design to kill the King. But this I heard afterwards was only the mistake …
Beginning September 1–5, Pepys meets naval officials, hears political fears about a Presbyterian rising on a significant day, and records court and naval comparisons with Queen Elizabeth’s fleet and artillery practices.
to struggle and to look after his business. I also put him upon getting an order from the Duke for our inquiries into the Chest, which he will see done. Mr. Creed and I walked down to the Tylt Yard, and so all along Thames-street, but could not get a boat: I offered eight shillings for a boat to attend me this afternoon, and they would not, it being the day of the Queene's coming to town from Hampton Court. So we …
Pepys keeps the revenue-taxation thread, then reports March 2-4 council criticism of officials, a new gun experiment for Peterborough, laying foundations of a major royal house at Greenwich, and his appointment-related profit hopes at the Royal Fishery.
unless from the plainness that he sees I use to him in telling him how much the King may suffer for our want of understanding the case of our Treasury. MARCH 2, 1663-64. This morning Mr. Burgby, one of the writing clerks belonging to the Council, a knowing man, complains to me how most of the Lords of the Council do look after themselves and their own ends, and none the public, unless Sir Edward Nicholas. Sir G. Ca…
In late 1664, Pepys describes theatrical and administrative meetings (Ordnance, Tower), a monster birth tale, naval council discussions, Dutch hostility beginning, and Parliament financing the war.
good play, but admirably acted. Thence home; the coach being forced to go round by London Wall home, because of the bonfires; the day being mightily observed in the City. 8th. At noon, I and Sir J. Minnes and Lord Barkeley (who with Sir J. Duncum, [M.P. for Bury St. Edmunds.] and Mr. Chichly, are made Masters of the Ordnance), to the office of the Ordnance, to discourse about wadding for guns. Thence to dinner, a…
Archidamus encloses Plataea with a palisade, builds a massive mound for assault, and faces Plataean countermeasures like walls, mining, and protective timber and skins to prevent burning and breakthrough.
When it is over we will restore to you whatever we received, and in the interim hold it in trust and keep it in cultivation, paying you a sufficient allowance.” When they had heard what he had to say, they re-entered the city, and after consulting with the people said that they wished first to acquaint the Athenians with this proposal, and in the event of their approving to accede to it; in the meantime they asked h…
In early winter, Delium fortification by Hippocrates proceeds after a scheduling mistake prevents Demosthenes at Siphae; once Boeotian help rushes in, the conspirators stay inactive, and Hippocrates fortifies Delium with trenches, stakes, cut vines, and towers.
before they sent him out, assuring the independence of the allies whom he might bring over. Not long after, Stagirus, a colony of the Andrians, followed their example and revolted. Such were the events of this summer. It was in the first days of the winter following that the places in Boeotia were to be put into the hands of the Athenian generals, Hippocrates and Demosthenes, the latter of whom was to go with his sh…
Lamachus urges a sudden attack on Syracuse to exploit panic, while Alcibiades sails across Sicily, fails to secure Messina, returns to Rhegium, and helps lead Athenians into Syracuse via a broken postern gate during an assembly.
allies in the war, they might at length attack Syracuse and Selinus; unless the latter came to terms with Egesta and the former ceased to oppose the restoration of Leontini. Lamachus, on the other hand, said that they ought to sail straight to Syracuse, and fight their battle at once under the walls of the town while the people were still unprepared, and the panic at its height. Every armament was most terrible at f…
Athenians first ravage nearby Syracusan lands, then attack the counterwall with engines, fail, and execute a night move toward Epipolae, taking a fort and briefly gaining footholds.
and take Syracuse, or would lead back the armament instead of frittering away the lives of the Athenians engaged in the expedition and the resources of the country at large. First therefore the Athenians went out and laid waste the lands of the Syracusans about the Anapus and carried all before them as at first by land and by sea, the Syracusans not offering to oppose them upon either element, unless it were with th…
Telemachus and Ulysses plan that Telemachus and another ally return to the suitors, endure abuse, keep Ulysses hidden, and then help hide the household armor until Minerva’s signal enables a decisive attack.
“Those whom you have named,” answered Telemachus, “are a couple of good allies, for though they dwell high up among the clouds they have power over both gods and men.” “These two,” continued Ulysses, “will not keep long out of the fray, when the suitors and we join fight in my house. Now, therefore, return home early to-morrow morning, and go about among the suitors as before. Later on the swineherd will bring me to…
Ulysses, with Minerva’s help, and Telemachus move the weapons inside and hide them from the suitors, while Telemachus shuts Penelope’s women away and proceeds by torchlight.
TELEMACHUS AND ULYSSES REMOVE THE ARMOUR—ULYSSES INTERVIEWS PENELOPE—EURYCLEA WASHES HIS FEET AND RECOGNISES THE SCAR ON HIS LEG—PENELOPE TELLS HER DREAM TO ULYSSES. Ulysses was left in the cloister, pondering on the means whereby with Minerva’s help he might be able to kill the suitors. Presently he said to Telemachus, “Telemachus, we must get the armour together and take it down inside. Make some excuse when the s…
Minerva arranges a contest in Penelope’s house using Ulysses’s bow and axes, linked to Ulysses’s old friendship with Iphitus, whose episode in Messene supplies the bow’s origin.
THE TRIAL OF THE AXES, DURING WHICH ULYSSES REVEALS HIMSELF TO EUMAEUS AND PHILOETIUS Minerva now put it in Penelope’s mind to make the suitors try their skill with the bow and with the iron axes, in contest among themselves, as a means of bringing about their destruction. She went upstairs and got the store-room key, which was made of bronze and had a handle of ivory; she then went with her maidens into the store-r…
Telemachus tries the bow but cannot string it, then Leiodes fails and urges Penelope to marry a stronger man; Antinous orders warming and greasing the bow to continue testing the suitors.
He was trying for the fourth time, and would have strung it had not Ulysses made a sign to check him in spite of all his eagerness. So he said: “Alas! I shall either be always feeble and of no prowess, or I am too young, and have not yet reached my full strength so as to be able to hold my own if any one attacks me. You others, therefore, who are stronger than I, make trial of the bow and get this contest settled.” …
Ulysses strings the bow skillfully, shoots through all twelve axes, and then signals Telemachus to begin supper and dancing, completing the bow contest and triggering the shift to violence.
any groaning or uproar as of men fighting about the house, they are not to come out, but are to keep quiet and stay where they are at their work.” Euryclea did as she was told and closed the doors of the women’s apartments. Meanwhile Philoetius slipped quietly out and made fast the gates of the outer court. There was a ship’s cable of byblus fibre lying in the gatehouse, so he made the gates fast with it and then c…
Eumaeus provides sleeping arrangements and extra clothing for Odysseus, while he goes to guard the boars and arms himself with sword, mantle, javelin, and goat fleece against dogs and men.
one coat. But when the dear son of Odysseus comes, he himself will give thee a mantle and doublet for raiment, and send thee whithersoever thy heart and spirit bid.” With that he sprang up and set a bed for Odysseus near the fire, and thereon he cast skins of sheep and goats. There Odysseus laid him down and Eumaeus cast a great thick mantle over him, which he had ever by him for a change of covering, when any terri…
Odysseus advises Telemachus to tell the suitors the weapons were ruined by smoke, then Athene’s light reveals the palace beams as Telemachus sleeps, and Odysseus stays awake planning the slaying of the suitors.
not care to go to the labours of the field, but wilt choose rather to go louting through the land, that thou mayst have wherewithal to feed thine insatiate belly.” Then Odysseus of many counsels answered him and said: “Eurymachus, would that there might be a trial of labour between us twain, in the season of spring, when the long days begin! In the deep grass might it be, and I should have a crooked scythe, and thou…
Odysseus and Telemachus fight off the wooers at Odysseus’s Ithacan house entrance, killing Amphinomus, arming themselves, and sending Telemachus for weapons and help while Odysseus holds the door with arrows.
his agony he smote the ground with his brow, and spurning with both his feet he overthrew the high seat, and the mist of death was shed upon his eyes. Then Amphinomus made at renowned Odysseus, setting straight at him, and drew his sharp sword, if perchance he might make him give ground from the door. But Telemachus was beforehand with him, and cast and smote him from behind with a bronze-shod spear between the shou…
The goatherd Melanthius arms the wooers with more bronze gear, but Odysseus suspects treachery, orders Eumaeus to capture him, and Melanthius is bound and tortured to await punishment.
armour from the inner chamber, that ye may be clad in hauberks, for, methinks, within that room and not elsewhere did Odysseus and his renowned son lay by the arms.” Therewith Melanthius, the goatherd, climbed up by the clerestory of the hall to the inner chambers of Odysseus, whence he took twelve shields and as many spears, and as many helmets of bronze with thick plumes of horse hair, and he came forth and brough…
Darwin defines sexual selection as a male-male struggle for females where unsuccessful males leave few or no offspring, arguing it is less rigorous than natural selection and can produce weapons and ornaments.
with weak beaks would inevitably perish: or, more delicate and more easily broken shells might be selected, the thickness of the shell being known to vary like every other structure. *Sexual Selection*.—Inasmuch as peculiarities often appear under domestication in one sex and become hereditarily attached to that sex, the same fact probably occurs under nature, and if so, natural selection will be able to modify one …
Decius rejects slow raiding, attacks fortified Samnite cities (Murgantia, Romulea, Ferentinum) quickly, captures or kills thousands, and notes differing traditions about which Roman commanders took each city.
them, in readiness for action, furnished with arms and pay, and were willing to follow that instant, even should they lead to the attack of the city of Rome itself." 17. While they were engaged in these representations, and intriguing at Etruria, the operations of the Romans in their own territories distressed them severely. For Publius Decius, when he ascertained through his scouts the departure of the Samnite army…
Livy describes Lucius Papirius Cursor conducting a major Samnite campaign at Aquilonia, where the Samnites impose an oath and establish a 'linen legion' for a decisive battle against Rome.
that honour was refused him, because he had lost so many thousands of his soldiers; and also, because he had sent the prisoners under the yoke without imposing any conditions. 37. The other consul, Postumius, because there was no employment for his arms in Samnium, having led over his forces into Etruria, first laid waste the lands of the Volsinians; and afterwards, on their marching out to protect their country, ga…
Livy describes Saguntum’s wealth, the origins of its people, Hannibal’s three-pronged assault, the vineae and battering-ram against the walls, and how Hannibal’s thigh wound nearly breaks Carthaginian progress.
the submission of the Carpetani also within a few days. And now all the country beyond the Iberus, excepting that of the Saguntines, was under the power of the Carthaginians. 6. As yet there was no war with the Saguntines, but already, in order to a war, the seeds of dissension were sown between them and their neighbours, particularly the Turetani, with whom when the same person sided who had originated the quarrel,…
During the healing of Hannibal’s wound, the siege continues with relentless works; Carthaginians use massive forces, battering rams breach walls, and Saguntines fight in ordered lines with fearsome falarica missiles.
to Hannibal at Saguntum, and from thence to Carthage, if he did not desist from the war, to demand the general himself in atonement for the violation of the treaty. 7. While the Romans thus prepare and deliberate, Saguntum was already besieged with the utmost vigour. That city, situated about a mile from the sea, was by far the most opulent beyond the Iberus. Its inhabitants are said to have been sprung from the isl…
After Hanno’s speech, senators shift against him; Hannibal meanwhile rests and then intensifies siege operations at Saguntum, undermining the wall with Africans, taking ground, fortifying positions, and pressing the assault.
away his army from Saguntum, and to deliver up Hannibal himself, according to the treaty to the Romans; and I propose a third embassy to make restitution to the Saguntines." 11. When Hanno had concluded, there was no occasion for any one to contend with him in debate, to such a decree were almost all the senators devoted to Hannibal; and they accused Hanno of having spoken with more malignity than Flaccus Valerius, …
At dawn the Carthaginian camp moves on through a mountain pass, where ambush and crowding terrify horses, break ranks, and cause heavy losses of men and especially baggage, until the roads are cleared and Hannibal’s army crosses.
with a party of light-armed, consisting of all the most courageous of his troops, rapidly cleared the defile, and took post on those very heights which the enemy had occupied. 33. At dawn of light the next day the camp broke up, and the rest of the army began to move forward. The mountaineers, on a signal being given, were now assembling from their forts to their usual station, when they suddenly behold part of the …
At a nearly impassable narrow rock, Hannibal orders a detour that fails, then uses fire, vinegar, and iron tools to soften heated stone, letting beasts of burden and elephants descend; after four days on the obstacle, they reach Italy and find less rugged country.
those who made the least stumble could prevent themselves from falling, nor, when fallen, remain in the same place, but rolled, both men and beasts of burden, one upon another. 36. They then came to a rock much more narrow, and formed of such perpendicular ledges, that a light-armed soldier, carefully making the attempt, and clinging with his hands to the bushes and roots around, could with difficulty lower himself …
On the next day Gracchus fights at Beneventum against Bruttians, Lucanians, and largely Numidian and Moorish cavalry; liberty-linked brawling over enemy heads nearly ruins the Roman fight until a signal restores charges.
for the following day. The soldiers, highly delighted, particularly those whose enfranchisement was to be the reward of one day's prowess, employed the remaining time in getting ready their arms. 15. The next day, as soon as the trumpets began to sound, they were the first to assemble at the general's tent, armed and ready for action. When the sun had risen, Gracchus led out his troops to the field of battle; nor di…
Archimedes counters the Roman assault with engineered defenses, deploying missiles, loop-holes, and devices to damage ships, forcing Marcellus to abandon assault and instead blockade Syracuse to cut off supplies.
effect an entrance into a city so desert, and diffused over so large an extent of ground, they brought up to the walls every kind of engine for besieging cities. 34. And an attempt made with so much energy would have succeeded, had it not been for one person then at Syracuse. That person was Archimedes, a man of unrivalled skill in observing the heavens and the stars, but more deserving of admiration as the inventor…
After capturing New Carthage, Scipio takes captives and restructures them as citizens, artisans for the Romans, and rowers/slaves for the fleet, while cataloging vast military stores and treasure.
to afford a passage to the Romans, ordered them to follow Neptune as their guide, and passing through the middle of the lake, make good their way to the walls. 46. Those who renewed the assault by land experienced great difficulty; for they were baffled not only by the height of the walls, but also because they exposed the Romans, as they approached them, to the missiles of the enemy from different quarters, so that…
Hannibal expects Roman fortunes to swing and leads the second battle; elephants disrupt the Roman line, but Roman counterthrows and cavalry pursuit restore order, inflict heavy losses, and make Hannibal decamp at night.
be expected, their strength might not fail. After every thing had been done and said, by which the courage of the soldiers might be roused, they advanced into the field. 14. Hannibal, on receiving intelligence of this, said, "surely the enemy we have to do with can neither bear good nor bad fortune. If he is victorious, he fiercely pursues the vanquished. If conquered, he renews the contest with the victors." He the…
The combined Roman armies arrive before full escape; battle forms with elephants in front and Gauls and Spaniards assigned to wings, then Claudius outflanks and the engagement becomes a slaughter for Hasdrubal’s forces.
ford, for the further he went from the sea the higher he found the banks which kept the river in its course, he gave the enemy time to overtake him. 48. First Nero arrived with the whole body of his cavalry, then Porcius came up with him, with the light infantry. And while these were harassing his weary troops on every side, and charging them, and the Carthaginian, stopping his march, which resembled a flight, was d…
Two armies face each other for several days without attacking; Scipio manipulates arrangements at dawn, changes troop placement, unleashes cavalry and light troops, and begins a complex battle using reserves, oblique lines, and attacks on flanks.
this battle, the spirits of the Romans were considerably raised, and those of the enemy depressed, yet, for several days following, the horsemen and light-armed troops never ceased from skirmishes. 14. After having made sufficient trial of their strength in these slight engagements, Hasdrubal first led out his forces for battle, and then the Romans also advanced. But both the armies stood drawn up before their rampa…
After the fires spread, Carthaginian and Numidian sentinels misjudge the blaze as accidental, rush out unarmed, and get slaughtered; Scipio then assaults the gates, causing the two camps’ total destruction and heavy losses.
the flames in their beds while half asleep; and many, tumbling over one another in their haste to escape, were trampled to death in the narrow passages of the gates. 6. When first the Carthaginian sentinels, and afterwards the rest, roused by the terrifying effects of a tumult by night, beheld the light emitted from the flames, they also, labouring under the same delusion, imagined that the fire had originated from …
Near Tunes, Romans build a transport “wall” for naval combat against Carthaginian ships from Carthage to Utica, but the Carthaginians attack and use harpoons to tear the linked bridges, towing some transports to Carthage.
works, and also by its own natural position; it may be seen from Carthage, and itself affords a prospect both of that city and of the sea which washes it. 10. From this place the Romans, while diligently employed in raising a rampart, descried the fleet of the enemy, on its way to Utica from Carthage. Desisting from their work, therefore, orders for marching were given, and the troops began to move with the utmost h…
In the same summer, Romans under Quinctilius Varus and Cornelius fight Mago of Carthage in Insubrian Gaul; Roman plans falter when elephants terrify cavalry, but infantry and legions reform to rout Gauls after Mago is wounded.
were discharged from custody and given back to the king. In addition to these, dwellings, reserved by the state for such purposes, grounds, and entertainment, were assigned to the ambassadors. 18. The same summer during which these decrees were passed at Rome, and these transactions took place in Africa, Publius Quinctilius Varus, the praetor, and Marcus Cornelius, the proconsul, fought a pitched battle with Mago th…
Scipio arranges Roman forces for battle with elephants contained through gaps and light-armed velites, while Hannibal deploys elephants and mixed auxiliaries, targeting Roman troops with massed cavalry and infantry lines.
have supposed that he had already conquered. He then drew up his troops, posting the hastati in front, the principes behind them, and closing his rear line with the triarii. 33. He did not draw up his cohorts in close order, but each before their respective standards; placing the companies at some distance from each other, so as to leave a space through which the elephants of the enemy passing might not at all break…
Philip tests different troops—Trallians, Cretans, and Athenagoras’ force—against Roman cavalry and light infantry, but Roman close fighting breaks the Macedonian skirmishing style and drives them back.
the king, each waiting for the other's making some attempt, kept their troops within the ramparts. On the third day, the Roman led out all his forces, and offered battle. 35. But the king, not daring to risk so hastily a general engagement, sent four hundred Trallians, who are a tribe of the Illyrians, as we have said in another place, and three hundred Cretans; adding to this body of infantry an equal number of hor…
Both armies shout at once; Quinctius charges with elephants, then drives back Macedonians, while a Roman tribune loops around to strike their right, causing the heavy Macedonian phalanx to break and flee.
within so that it might be deeper than it was broad. He ordered them also to close their files, so that man might join with man and arms with arms. 9. Quinctius, having received among the standards and ranks those who had been engaged with the enemy, gave the signal by sound of trumpet. It is said, that such a shout was raised, as was seldom heard at the beginning of any battle; for it happened, that both armies sho…
In Turditania, the Turditanians and hired Celtiberians fight Romans but are still unable to end the war; meanwhile the consul takes away arms from Spanish states, prompting suicides, then razes fortresses and attacks Segestica.
labour, he vied with the meanest of his soldiers; nor, excepting the honour of his post, and the command, had he any peculiar distinction above the rest of the army. 19. The Celtiberians, summoned forth by the enemy for hire, as above mentioned, rendered the war in Turditania more difficult to the praetor, Publius Manlius. The consul, therefore, in compliance with a letter from the praetor, led his legions thither. …
Quinctius captures sea-coast towns and then besieges Gythium with help from King Eumenes and the Rhodian fleet, using siegeworks and battering rams until Gythium surrenders.
out of the gates, he removed his camp to the river Eurotas. From thence he ravaged the valley lying under Taygetus, and the country reaching as far as the sea. 29. About the same time, Lucius Quinctius got possession of the towns on the sea-coast; of some, by their voluntary surrender; of others, by fear or force. Then, learning that the Lacedaemonians made Gythium the repository of all their naval stores, and that …
In a siege fighting in narrow streets, the Lacedaemonians press forward with shield cover, but Roman missiles and rooftop attacks stop them, and Nabis is thrown into panic as the town is effectively saved for Rome.
that prevailed all around, as to become incapable either of giving proper directions, or of hearing what was said, and to lose, not only his judgment, but almost his reason. 39. For some time the Lacedaemonians maintained their ground against the Romans, in the narrow passes; and three armies, on each side, fought, at one time, in different places. Afterwards, when the heat of the contest increased, the contest was,…
A decisive battle near Mutina is fought as consular forces deploy allies and extraordinarii in front, rotate reserves, and use cavalry charges to break the Gauls’ ranks despite heat and the Gauls’ disciplined resistance.
themselves, or their allies, were lost above five thousand men, twenty-three centurions, four prefects of the allies, and two military tribunes of the second legion, Marcus Genucius and Marcus Marcius. 6. Letters from both the consuls arrived at Rome nearly at the same time. That of Lucius Cornelius gave an account of the battle fought with the Boians at Mutina; that of Quintus Minucius, from Pisae, mentioned, that …
While Heraclea falls, Philip besieges Lamia; he meets the consul at Thermopylae, coordinates simultaneous sieges, uses mines and works, and is induced to relent once Heraclea is reduced.
the Aetolians were encamped there, it should be delivered to him." On account of this presumptuous insolence of his, his surrender was a matter of greater satisfaction to the victors. 25. At the same time, while the Romans were employed in the reduction of Heraclea, Philip, by concert, besieged Lamia. He had an interview with the consul, as he was returning from Boeotia, at Thermopylae, whither he came to congratula…
Douglass describes Colonel Edward Lloyd’s plantation system: administrators, farms and overseers, the sloop Sally Lloyd for shipping to Baltimore, monthly food and yearly clothing rations, and the severe deprivation of enslaved children.
My master’s family consisted of two sons, Andrew and Richard; one daughter, Lucretia, and her husband, Captain Thomas Auld. They lived in one house, upon the home plantation of Colonel Edward Lloyd. My master was Colonel Lloyd’s clerk and superintendent. He was what might be called the overseer of the overseers. I spent two years of childhood on this plantation in my old master’s family. It was here that I witnessed …
Herzl insists emigration can be carried out only with free Jewish consent, argues injustice would drive Jews into revolution, denies that his plan provides usable “weapons” to enemies, and argues enthusiasm plus technology can make it real.
say that I am furnishing the Anti-Semites with weapons. Why so? Because I admit the truth? Because I do not maintain that there are none but excellent men against us? Will not people say that I am showing our enemies the way to injure us? This I absolutely dispute. My proposal could only be carried out with the free consent of a majority of Jews. Action may be taken against individuals or even against groups of the …
Hamilton defends standing armies in peace by claiming the Constitution places army-raising power in the legislature, and limits it via a two-year appropriation rule.
To the People of the State of New York: To the powers proposed to be conferred upon the federal government, in respect to the creation and direction of the national forces, I have met with but one specific objection, which, if I understand it right, is this, that proper provision has not been made against the existence of standing armies in time of peace; an objection which, I shall now endeavor to show, rests on we…
Hamilton addresses the objection that the Constitution allows standing armies in peacetime, arguing the plan keeps army-raising in the legislature and limits military funding to two years, making abuse unlikely.
To the People of the State of New York: TO THE powers proposed to be conferred upon the federal government, in respect to the creation and direction of the national forces, I have met with but one specific objection, which, if I understand it right, is this, that proper provision has not been made against the existence of standing armies in time of peace; an objection which, I shall now endeavor to show, rests on we…
Madison continues that militia regulation needs little local knowledge beyond terrain, and that representatives share state-specific knowledge while each must learn differing conditions across states.
the local information and interests of the State are assembled, and from whence they may easily be conveyed by a very few hands into the legislature of the United States. (The observations made on the subject of taxation apply with greater force to the case of the militia. For however different the rules of discipline may be in different States, they are the same throughout each particular State; and depend on circu…
Aeneas’ party uses a hidden postern to reach the tower, hurls beams to crush Greeks, then Pyrrhus breaks into the palace, killing defenders and capturing Priam’s household spaces and royal quarters.
Renew’d in courage with recover’d breath, A second time we ran to tempt our death, To clear the palace from the foe, succeed The weary living, and revenge the dead. “A postern door, yet unobserv’d and free, Join’d by the length of a blind gallery, To the king’s closet led: a way well known To Hector’s wife, while Priam held the throne, Thro’ which she brought Astyanax, unseen, To cheer …
Aeneas invites a gauntlet combat duel for prizes between champions, and Dares enters confident, while discussion turns to Entellus’ reluctance and past glory in Eryx-like boxing combat.
shield, Of wondrous art, by Didymaon wrought, Long since from Neptune’s bars in triumph brought. This giv’n to Nisus, he divides the rest, And equal justice in his gifts express’d. The race thus ended, and rewards bestow’d, Once more the prince bespeaks th’ attentive crowd: “If there be here, whose dauntless courage dare In gauntlet fight, with limbs and body bare, His opposite sustain in ope…
The Rutulian allies under Turnus’ banner forge and dress for battle, listing multiple Latian cities and warriors, and introducing Mezentius, Lausus, and Aventinus with their distinctive weapons and origins.
New grind the blunted ax, and point the dart: With joy they view the waving ensigns fly, And hear the trumpet’s clangour pierce the sky. Five cities forge their arms: th’ Atinian pow’rs, Antemnae, Tibur with her lofty tow’rs, Ardea the proud, the Crustumerian town: All these of old were places of renown. Some hammer helmets for the fighting field; Some twine young sallo…
More Turnus’ allies arrive from Praeneste, Gabii and neighboring regions, including sling-armed stone-throwers, Neptune-sired Messapus, and the Sabine leader Clausus, whose troops march singing.
appear. Like cloud-born Centaurs, from the mountain’s height With rapid course descending to the fight; They rush along; the rattling woods give way; The branches bend before their sweepy sway. Nor was Praeneste’s founder wanting there, Whom fame reports the son of Mulciber: Found in the fire, and foster’d in the plains, A shepherd and a king at once he reigns, And leads to Turnus’ aid his co…
The poem continues listing Turnus’ men, including Oebalus of Capri with brazen weapons, Ufens and the Nursians, the Marrubians led by Umbro with magical healing, and Virbius, whose father Hippolytus was restored by Diana/Jove and is now a rider.
Light demi-lances from afar they throw, Fasten’d with leathern thongs, to gall the foe. Short crooked swords in closer fight they wear; And on their warding arm light bucklers bear. Nor Oebalus, shalt thou be left unsung, From nymph Semethis and old Telon sprung, Who then in Teleboan Capri reign’d; But that short isle th’ ambitious youth disdain’d, And o’er Campania stretch’d his ample sway, …
Turnus is presented heroically riding high in his chariot with a fiery Chimera on his plumes and mythic imagery on his shield, and the battle list closes with the arrival and description of Camilla, a fast warrior leader of the Volscians.
Are coursers driv’n, who shed their master’s blood, Affrighted by the monsters of the flood. His son, the second Virbius, yet retain’d His father’s art, and warrior steeds he rein’d. Amid the troops, and like the leading god, High o’er the rest in arms the graceful Turnus rode: A triple of plumes his crest adorn’d, On which with belching flames Chimaera burn’d: The more the kindled combat ris…
As war begins, Turnus prepares his forces and sends to Diomedes, while Aeneas seeks help from Evander and the Tuscans; meanwhile, Vulcan makes arms for Aeneas at Venus’ request.
THE ARGUMENT. The war being now begun, both the generals make all possible preparations. Turnus sends to Diomedes. Aeneas goes in person to beg succours from Evander and the Tuscans. Evander receives him kindly, furnishes him with men, and sends his son Pallas with him. Vulcan, at the request of Venus, makes arms for her son Aeneas, and draws on his shield the most memorable actions of …
Venus convinces Vulcan with arguments about making arms for Troy, then Vulcan’s arousal and early-morning household rhythms lead into a detailed description of Vulcan’s forge and the making of a hero’s shield.
Not half so swift the rattling thunder flies, Or forky lightnings flash along the skies. The goddess, proud of her successful wiles, And conscious of her form, in secret smiles. Then thus the pow’r, obnoxious to her charms, Panting, and half dissolving in her arms: “Why seek you reasons for a cause so just, Or your own beauties or my love distrust? Long since, had you requir’d my helpful hand…
Venus appears to Aeneas with the fated weapons forged by Vulcan, places them by an oak, and recites the future wars depicted on the shield—ending with a long catalogue of Roman and Italian heroic scenes.
all the Tyrrhene army had in sight, Stretch’d on the spacious plain from left to right. Thither his warlike train the Trojan led, Refresh’d his men, and wearied horses fed. Meantime the mother goddess, crown’d with charms, Breaks thro’ the clouds, and brings the fated arms. Within a winding vale she finds her son, On the cool river’s banks, retir’d alone. She shews her heav’nly form without d…
Turnus and the Italians battle at a massive wooden tower: Trojans fight with stones and spears, Turnus sets the tower on fire, and the collapse kills most attackers while a few survivors escape the fall.
What fame the soldiers with their captain share, And the vast circuit of the fatal war; For you in singing martial facts excel; You best remember, and alone can tell. There stood a tow’r, amazing to the sight, Built up of beams, and of stupendous height: Art, and the nature of the place, conspir’d To furnish all the strength that war requir’d. To level this, the bold Italians join; The …
In the assault on the Trojan walls, various Latian and Trojan fighters are slain as Turnus’ men breach defenses, while Ilioneus and others retaliate with stones, arrows, and spears.
Then rushing onward with a barb’rous cry, The troops of Turnus to the combat fly. The ditch with fagots fill’d, the daring foe Toss’d firebrands to the steepy turrets throw. Ilioneus, as bold Lucetius came To force the gate, and feed the kindling flame, Roll’d down the fragment of a rock so right, It crush’d him double underneath the weight. Two more young Liger and Asylas slew: To bend…
Aeneas orders Achates to supply veteran Trojan spears, then throws them with deadly effect while Turnus’ allies and opponents are slain, and the armies struggle in a close, prolonged clash on land.
at once; and some rebound From his bright shield, some on his helmet sound: The rest had reach’d him; but his mother’s care Prevented those, and turn’d aside in air. The prince then call’d Achates, to supply The spears that knew the way to victory— “Those fatal weapons, which, inur’d to blood, In Grecian bodies under Ilium stood: Not one of those my hand shall toss in vain Against our f…