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Often appears with: forms of government · counsel and advisers to rulers · political legitimacy and consent · justice as a virtue · crime and punishment · conspiracy and assassination · religious persecution and toleration · faction, party, and civil strife · conquest, plunder, and captives · diplomacy and embassies · fate, destiny, and necessity · censorship and the press
Usually: argument (130) · indignation (91) · narrative (77) · injustice endured (73) · detachment (66) · censure (64) · skepticism (56) · the fall of the great (39) · exhortation (37) · betrayal (33)
“The Speech if it may be called one, is nothing better than a wilful audacious libel against the truth, the common good, and the existence of mankind; and is a formal and pompous method of offering up human sacrifices to the pride of tyrants.” Thomas Paine, Common Sense · vivid
“Brutality and tyranny appear on the face of it. It leaves us at no loss: And every line convinces, even in the moment of reading, that He, who hunts the woods for prey, the naked and untutored Indian, is less a Savage than the King of Britain.” Thomas Paine, Common Sense · vivid
“The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judiciary, in the same hands, whether of one, a few, or many, and whether hereditary, selfappointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny.” Alexander Hamilton; John Jay; James Madison, The Federalist Papers · insight
“Therefore, since he permits Within himself unworthy powers to reign Over free reason, God, in judgement just, Subjects him from without to violent lords; Who oft as undeservedly enthrall His outward freedom: Tyranny must be; Though to the tyrant thereby no excuse.” John Milton, Paradise Lost · insight
“For mankind censure injustice, fearing that they may be the victims of it and not because they shrink from committing it.” Plato, The Republic · insight
“They are always either the masters or servants and never the friends of anybody; the tyrant never tastes of true freedom or friendship.” Plato, The Republic · observation
“He who is the real tyrant, whatever men may think, is the real slave, and is obliged to practise the greatest adulation and servility.” Plato, The Republic · observation
“Remove the dreadful scourge—the plaited thong—the galling fetter—the accursed chain—and let the slaveholder rely solely upon moral and religious power, by which to secure obedience to his orders, and how long do you suppose a slave would remain on his plantation?” Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom · precept
“The moment a foreigner ventures upon our soil, and utters a natural repugnance to oppression, that moment he is made to feel that there is little sympathy in this land for him.” Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom · observation
“From these causes were derived, 1. The exquisite sensibility of the sufferers; and, 2. The impossibility of escaping from the hand of the oppressor.” Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire · observation
“But the empire of the Romans filled the world, and when the empire fell into the hands of a single person, the world became a safe and dreary prison for his enemies.” Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire · insight
“Alas!” replied his more penetrating colleague—“alas! I dread the hatred of the soldiers, and the fatal effects of their resentment.” Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire · observation
The author argues Muhammad was sincerely trying to end idol worship and teach God’s unity, while also becoming harsher in Medina and possibly suffering self-deception, then introduces Sura 14 “Abraham” with its themes of divine guidance and punishment.
Musailima and Sajâh (Hisam. 946; Attabâri (ed. Kosegarten) i. 134, 136, 152; Tab. Agâni, 339), which are mere imitations of the Koran, that he felt this to be the case. 6 "They laughed and jeered at him in their words." Midr. Tanchuma. "The passage Job xii. 5, refers to the righteous Noah who taught them and spake to them words severe as flames: but they scorned him, and said, 'Old man! for what purpose is this ark?…
The narrator argues Muhammad sought to end idolatry and proclaim God’s unity, but also depicts his later rule as marked by tyranny, violence, and possible self-deception from supposed catalepsy and hallucinations.
relics98 left by the family of Moses, and the family of Aaron; the angels shall bear it: Truly herein shall be a sign indeed to you if ye are believers." And when Saul marched forth with his forces, he said, "God will test you by a river: He who drinketh of it shall not be of my band; but he who shall not taste it, drinking a drink out of the hand excepted, shall be of my band."99 And, except a few of them, they dra…
The narrator claims Muhammad sought to oppose idolatries but argues this produced persecution at Mecca and tyranny at Medina, possibly driven by self-deception and hallucinations, before quoting Qur’anic material addressing Jews and the command to hasten to Friday prayer.
SAY: O ye Jews, if ye profess that ye rather than other men are the friends of God, then wish for death if ye are men of truth. But never on account of their previous handywork will they wish for it, and God knoweth the wrong doers. SAY: Verily the death from which ye flee will surely meet you. Then shall ye be brought back to Him who knoweth alike the things done in secret and openly: and He will tell you of your …
At St James’s and around the ’Change Pepys discusses Turner’s trials and execution prospects, describes a Quaker confrontation with the King, and hears about condemned plotters including Captain Oates.
Trials.] is found guilty of felony and burglary: and strange stories of his confidence at the barr, but yet great indignation in his arguing. All desirous of his being hanged. 20th. My Lord Sandwich did seal a lease for the house he is now taking in Lincoln's Inn Fields, which stands him in 250l. per annum rent. Sir Richard Ford told me that Turner is to be hanged to-morrow, and with what impudence he hath carried…
As wealth and sea power grew, tyrannies spread and states built navies, citing Corinth’s naval advances, major sea-fights, and later developments culminating in the Athenians’ fleet for Salamis.
the islands, and the Peloponnesians to most of Italy and Sicily and some places in the rest of Hellas. All these places were founded subsequently to the war with Troy. But as the power of Hellas grew, and the acquisition of wealth became more an object, the revenues of the states increasing, tyrannies were by their means established almost everywhere—the old form of government being hereditary monarchy with definite…
Thucydides explains how a love affair led Harmodius and Aristogiton to conspire against Hippias and Hipparchus during the Panathenaea, culminating in Hipparchus’ death and a harsher reign under Hippias.
lengthened the altar in the market-place, and obliterated the inscription; but that in the Pythian precinct can still be seen, though in faded letters, and is to the following effect: Pisistratus, the son of Hippias, Sent up this record of his archonship In precinct of Apollo Pythias. That Hippias was the eldest son and succeeded to the government, is what I positively assert as a fact upon which I have had more ex…
The LORD appoints Moses as Pharaoh’s “God” and Aaron as prophet, hardens Pharaoh’s heart, and begins signs: Aaron’s rod becomes a serpent, Egyptian sorcerers imitate, and the river turns to blood for a week.
And the LORD said unto Moses: behold, I have made thee Pharao's God, and Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet. Thou shalt speak all that I command thee and Aaron thy brother shall speak unto Pharao: that he send the children of Israel out of his land. But I will harden Pharao's heart, that I may multiply my miracles and my wonders in the land of Egypt. And yet Pharao shall not hearken unto you, that I may set mine …
A sequence of plagues is threatened and enacted—frogs, then lice, then flies—along with negotiations where Pharaoh asks Moses to pray, but Pharaoh repeatedly hardens his heart and refuses release.
The LORD spake unto Moses: Go unto Pharao and tell him, thus sayeth the LORD: let my people go, that they may serve me. If thou wilt not let them go: behold I will smite all thy land with frogs. And the river shall scrale with frogs, and they shall come up and go into thine house and into thy chamber where thou sleepest and upon thy bed, and into the houses of thy servants, and upon thy people, and into thine ovens, …
The LORD announces a final plague: the death of Egypt’s firstborn at midnight, and Israel’s favor with Egyptians; Pharaoh still refuses, and Moses and Aaron perform the wonders while Pharaoh’s heart remains hardened.
And the LORD said unto Moses: yet will I bring one plague more upon Pharao and upon Egypt, and after that he will let you go hence. And when he letteth you go, he shall utterly drive you hence. But bid the people that every man borrow of his neighbour and every woman of her neighbouress: jewels of silver and jewels of gold. And the LORD gat the people favour in the sight of the Egyptians. Moreover Moses was very grea…
Hieronymus adopts tyrannical court practices, terrorizes rivals, and after a tortured servant accuses Thraso, Hieronymus executes the man and adds more victims, showing the regime’s brutality.
years of manhood, and was competent to assume the government; and thus, by voluntarily resigning the guardianship which he shared with several others, united the powers of all in himself. 5. It would scarcely have been easy even for any good and moderate king, succeeding one so deeply rooted in their affections as Hiero was, to obtain the favour of the Syracusans. But Hieronymus, forsooth, as if he was desirous of e…
Philip entrusts Argos to Nabis of Lacedaemon; Nabis secretly enters, seizes and plunders the city, then issues debt abolition and land redistribution, while negotiating with Roman envoys through truces and conferences.
with Philip; and even gave him notice that he would not admit any embassy from him, unless it came with information that he was retiring from the whole of Greece. 38. Philip now perceived that he must decide the matter in the field, and collect his strength about him from all quarters. Being particularly uneasy in respect to the cities of Achaia, a country so distant from him, and also of Argos, even more, indeed, t…
After a letter’s reading, Livy says Roman attention shifts to wars in Greece and against Antiochus, warning that Nabis of Lacedaemon would become a tyrant if Argos is left to him.
that twelve thousand of the enemy were slain; their general, Budar, taken; and the rest routed and dispersed." After the reading of this letter less alarm prevailed with respect to Spain, where a very formidable war had been apprehended. The whole anxiety of the public was directed towards king Antiochus, especially after the arrival of the ten ambassadors. These, after relating the proceedings with Philip, and the c…
Titus Quinctius replies that Rome allied with Pelops, not with tyrants, and condemns Nabis for violating alliance and tyranny against cities and prisoners, especially through actions at Argos and Lacedaemon.
promontory of Malea. Cease, therefore, to vaunt your good faith, and the obligations of treaties; and, dropping a popular style of discourse, speak as a tyrant, and as an enemy." 33. Aristaenus then began, at first to advise, and afterwards even to beseech Nabis, while it was yet in his power, and he had the opportunity, to consider what was best for himself and his interests. He then mentioned the names of several …
After peace, the Nemaean games resume and Roman intervention is celebrated as restoring Argive liberty, while Aetolians complain that Roman policy has kept Nabis as tyrant; Quinctius then returns toward Elatia.
midst of this rejoicing, Quinctius arrived, after having granted peace to the tyrant, dismissed Eumenes and the Rhodians from Lacedaemon, and sent back his brother, Lucius Quinctius, to the fleet. 41. The Nemaean games, the most celebrated of all the festivals, and their most splendid public spectacle, had been omitted, at the regular time, on account of the disasters of the war: the state now, in the fulness of the…
Hamilton claims that the Dutch confederacy relied on constitutional rule-bending in crises, and that defective constitutions tend toward dissolution or tyranny through necessary-but-dangerous assumptions of power.
or charging their neighbors with higher duties than their own subjects. A council of state, a chamber of accounts, with five colleges of admiralty, aid and fortify the federal administration. The executive magistrate of the union is the stadtholder, who is now an hereditary prince. His principal weight and influence in the republic are derived from this independent title; from his great patrimonial estates; from his…
Hamilton argues that many ancient governments were founded or reformed by prominent individuals and explains that although some steps were “regular,” leaders like Solon and Lycurgus still faced risky limits on single-person reform.
and consent, the task of framing it has not been committed to an assembly of men, but has been performed by some individual citizen of preeminent wisdom and approved integrity. Minos, we learn, was the primitive founder of the government of Crete, as Zaleucus was of that of the Locrians. Theseus first, and after him Draco and Solon, instituted the government of Athens. Lycurgus was the lawgiver of Sparta. The founda…
Madison argues that tyranny results from concentrating legislative, executive, and judicial power in the same hands, but that the Constitution avoids the “misconceived” version of the separation maxim attributed to Montesquieu.
parts. No political truth is certainly of greater intrinsic value, or is stamped with the authority of more enlightened patrons of liberty, than that on which the objection is founded. The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judiciary, in the same hands, whether of one, a few, or many, and whether hereditary, selfappointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny. Wer…
In Federalist No. 48, Madison argues that separation must include enough constitutional connection so each department can control the others; mere “parchment barriers” fail against encroachment, especially legislative usurpations.
they may in their nature be legislative, executive, or judiciary, the next and most difficult task is to provide some practical security for each, against the invasion of the others. What this security ought to be, is the great problem to be solved. Will it be sufficient to mark, with precision, the boundaries of these departments, in the constitution of the government, and to trust to these parchment barriers again…
Hamilton develops the theory that in human government, self-control requires auxiliary precautions: legislative predominance must be offset by dividing the legislature, and executive power must be fortified—especially through qualified means rather than relying on an absolute veto.
It may be a reflection on human nature, that such devices should be necessary to control the abuses of government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over …
Hamilton claims that in small republics like Rhode Island, factional majorities can repeatedly oppress minorities, requiring an independent power, whereas the extended United States makes majority coalitions less likely to be unjust.
and consequently the stability and independence of some member of the government, the only other security, must be proportionately increased. Justice is the end of government. It is the end of civil society. It ever has been and ever will be pursued until it be obtained, or until liberty be lost in the pursuit. In a society under the forms of which the stronger faction can readily unite and oppress the weaker, anarch…
He argues for moderation in political debate, claiming opponents may act from honest fears, but that parties often stoke passions; he warns demagogues can end in tyranny.
confusions of their country, or will flatter themselves with fairer prospects of elevation from the subdivision of the empire into several partial confederacies than from its union under one government. It is not, however, my design to dwell upon observations of this nature. I am well aware that it would be disingenuous to resolve indiscriminately the opposition of any set of men (merely because their situations mig…
Hamilton argues that Dutch and other examples show weak constitutions lead to dissolution and that emergency departures from constitutional unanimity and power assumptions can produce tyranny and instability.
by tampering with the provinces and cities. In 1726, the treaty of Hanover was delayed by these means a whole year. Instances of a like nature are numerous and notorious. In critical emergencies, the States-General are often compelled to overleap their constitutional bounds. In 1688, they concluded a treaty of themselves at the risk of their heads. The treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, by which their independence was f…
Hamilton continues, condemning the confederation idea of a “sovereignty over sovereigns” because it replaces law with violence, and frames the argument in the Federalist for the People of New York.
that the asylum under which, we trust, the enjoyment of these blessings will speedily be secured in this country, may receive and console them for the catastrophe of their own. I make no apology for having dwelt so long on the contemplation of these federal precedents. Experience is the oracle of truth; and where its responses are unequivocal, they ought to be conclusive and sacred. The important truth, which it une…
Madison explains Montesquieu’s separation-of-powers maxim by warning that uniting legislative, executive, and judicial functions enables tyrannical lawmaking and oppressive judges, then argues U.S. state constitutions mix departments despite claiming separation.
though one of its branches constitutes the supreme executive magistracy, and another, on the impeachment of a third, can try and condemn all the subordinate officers in the executive department. The reasons on which Montesquieu grounds his maxim are a further demonstration of his meaning. "When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or body," says he, "there can be no liberty, because app…
The author argues that for a Senate to become tyrannical it would have to corrupt the Senate first, then state legislatures, then the House, and finally the people, which seems impossible.
as of the latter; and that the former, rather than the latter, are apparently most to be apprehended by the United States. But a more particular reply may be given. Before such a revolution can be effected, the Senate, it is to be observed, must in the first place corrupt itself; must next corrupt the State legislatures; must then corrupt the House of Representatives; and must finally corrupt the people at large. It…
Citing Maryland, Britain, Sparta, Rome, and Carthage, the author claims historical experience shows popularly backed lower branches can restrain or crush life-term senates.
continual encroachments of the House of Representatives; and that it no sooner lost the support of the monarch, than it was actually crushed by the weight of the popular branch. As far as antiquity can instruct us on this subject, its examples support the reasoning which we have employed. In Sparta, the Ephori, the annual representatives of the people, were found an overmatch for the senate for life, continually gai…
Rodwell’s commentary-tinged introduction argues Muhammad sincerely sought to end Meccan idolatry but grew into tyranny at Medina, possibly via self-deception, then includes Quranic warnings about prayer, divine unity, punishment, and resurrection.
For he knoweth the very secrets of your breasts. When some trouble toucheth a man, he turneth to his Lord and calleth on him: yet no sooner hath He enriched him with his favour than he forgetteth Him on whom he before had called, and setteth up peers with God, that he may beguile others from His way. SAY: Enjoy thou thyself yet a little in thine ingratitude! but thou shalt surely be one of the inmates of the fire. …
In an appendix, Paine reacts to the King’s Speech, condemns it as villainy, compares it to tyranny, argues that America’s interest is separation, and outlines a preference for independence over reconciliation.
the necessity of pursuing the doctrine of the other. Men read by way of revenge. And the Speech, instead of terrifying, prepared a way for the manly principles of Independance. Ceremony, and even, silence, from whatever motive they may arise, have a hurtful tendency, when they give the least degree of countenance to base and wicked performances; wherefore, if this maxim be admitted, it naturally follows, that the Ki…
Continuing his argument, Douglass insists slavery is an abuse sustained by abuse and arbitrary power, claiming that removing physical restraints would make slaveholding impossible.
the haunts of wolves. He prefers to encounter a life of trial, however bitter, or death, however terrible, to dragging out his existence under the dominion of these *kind* masters. The apologists for slavery often speak of the abuses of slavery; and they tell us that they are as much opposed to those abuses as we are; and that they would go as far to correct those abuses and to ameliorate the condition of the slave …
Douglass condemns patriotism as misused to defend slavery, argues slavery harms America’s ability to criticize tyranny abroad, and says national righteousness requires abolition, warning the nation to beware.
than heathen darkness; if we express a word of sympathy for Kossuth and his Hungarian fugitive brethren, we are pointed to that horrible and hell-black enactment, “the fugitive slave bill.” Slavery blunts the edge of all our rebukes of tyranny abroad—the criticisms that we make upon other nations, only call forth ridicule, contempt, and scorn. In a word, we are made a reproach and a by-word to a mocking earth, and w…
Plutarch contrasts Theseus and Romulus, arguing Theseus acted from fear yet did lesser deeds, while Romulus proved justice and public benefit, and he criticizes both as kings who drifted into tyranny or popularity.
COMPARISON OF ROMULUS WITH THESEUS This is what I have learnt of Romulus and Theseus, worthy of memory. It seems, first of all, that Theseus, out of his own free-will, without any compulsion, when he might have reigned in security at Troezen in the enjoyment of no inglorious empire, of his own motion affected great actions, whereas the other, to escape present servitude and a punishment that threatened him, (accord…
Solon returns as Athens fractures into factions led by Lycurgus, Megacles, and Pisistratus; Solon tries to restrain Pisistratus, criticizes theatrical lying, condemns Pisistratus’s staged injury, and later warns citizens against passive tyranny.
not only freed Croesus from punishment, but honored him as long as he lived; and Solon had the glory, by the same saying, to save one king and instruct another. When Solon was gone, the citizens began to quarrel; Lycurgus headed the Plain; Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, those to the Sea-side; and Pisistratus the Hill-party, in which were the poorest people, the Thetes, and greatest enemies to the rich; insomuch that…
Pisistratus expands his guard, seizes the Acropolis, and Solon—though old and unsupported—urges Athenians to act, arms them at his home, then later supports the tyrant’s retention of Solon’s laws.
True, you are singly each a crafty soul, But all together make one empty fool. But observing the poor men bent to gratify Pisistratus, and tumultuous, and the rich fearful and getting out of harm's way, he departed, saying he was wiser than some and stouter than others; wiser than those that did not understand the design, stouter than those that, though they understood it, were afraid to oppose the tyranny. Now, th…
Plutarch turns to Poplicola (Publius Valerius): Valerius helps depose tyrants, becomes consul, takes an oath to maintain liberty, and rejects negotiations that would help Tarquin regain power.
return of their kings, who still used all endeavors abroad and solicitations at home, were resolved upon a chieftain of an intense hatred to them, and noways likely to yield. Now Valerius was troubled, that his desire to serve his country should be doubted, because he had sustained no private injury from the insolence of the tyrants. He withdrew from the senate and practice of the bar, quitting all public concerns;…
After the battle, the people criticize Valerius/Poplicola for concentrating power like a tyrant, but admire him when he tears down his own house at night and moderates consular symbols for republican rule.
citizens with speeches in their commendation; and their antiquity in Rome is affirmed to be greater than in Greece, unless, with the orator Anaximenes, we make Solon the first author. Yet some part of Valerius's behavior did give offense and disgust to the people, because Brutus, whom they esteemed the father of their liberty, had not presumed to rule without a colleague, but united one and then another to him in hi…
Plutarch explains why Athenians tolerate Alcibiades’ excesses: his generosity, shows, eloquence, courage, and physical grace outweigh disgust at his tyranny-like behavior, including examples like keeping and releasing artists, striking opponents, and taking a captive woman.
"Best rear no lion in your state, 'tis true; But treat him like a lion if you do." The truth is, his liberalities, his public shows, and other munificence to the people, which were such as nothing could exceed, the glory of his ancestors, the force of his eloquence, the grace of his person, his strength of body, joined with his great courage and knowledge in military affairs, prevailed upon the Athenians to endure p…
Although Alcibiades’ arrival coincides with the religiously inauspicious Plynteria festival of Minerva, his delayed departure for mysteries and procession by land succeeds, and popular support turns toward tyranny.
pronounced against him by sentence of the people. Which when all the rest obeyed, Theodorus, the high-priest, excused himself, "For," said he, "if he is innocent, I never cursed him." But notwithstanding the affairs of Alcibiades went so prosperously, and so much to his glory, yet many were still somewhat disturbed, and looked upon the time of his arrival to be ominous. For on the day that he came into the port, th…
Timoleon’s brother Timophanes takes power by killing leading citizens and declares himself tyrant of Corinth; Timoleon tries repeatedly to persuade him, but after the brother’s rage and contempt, Timoleon’s companions kill Timophanes.
him, helping to conceal or at least to extenuate his errors, embellishing by his praise whatever was commendable in him, and setting off his good qualities to the best advantage. It happened once in the battle fought by the Corinthians against the forces of Argos and Cleonae, that Timoleon served among the infantry, when Timophanes, commanding their cavalry, was brought into extreme danger; as his horse being wounde…
Timoleon’s brother is killed by assassins on a tyrant’s orders, after which Timoleon grieves, withdraws from Corinth for years, and Plutarch argues that moral actions must come from steadfast reason to prevent later regret.
rage and indignation against them, Timoleon stepped aside from him and stood weeping with his face covered, while the other two, drawing out their swords, dispatched him in a moment. On the rumor of this act being soon scattered about, the better and more generous of the Corinthians highly applauded Timoleon for the hatred of wrong and the greatness of soul that had made him, though of a gentle disposition and full …
Plutarch explains why “the Just” makes Aristides beloved, then envied, leading to ostracism justified as fear of tyranny—contrasting virtue with the false power of kings and tyrants.
is not so much as one of the same name as Aristides: while immediately after Phaenippus, during whose term of office they obtained the victory of Marathon, Aristides is registered. Of all his virtues, the common people were most affected with his justice, because of its continual and common use; and thus, although of mean fortune and ordinary birth, he possessed himself of the most kingly and divine appellation of J…
When Machanidas of Lacedaemon raids the Mantineans, Philopoemen exploits the enemy’s failed pursuit, charges suddenly, defeats the tyrant in single combat, and kills him by driving him into a ditch.
beauty they wore with pleasure, becoming light and easy to them with constant use, they longed for nothing more than to try them with an enemy, and fight in earnest. The Achaeans at that time were at war with Machanidas, the tyrant of Lacedaemon, who, having a strong army watched all opportunities of becoming entire master of Peloponnesus. When intelligence came that he was fallen upon the Mantineans, Philopoemen f…
In Sicily Pyrrhus crushes resistance from the Mamertines, negotiates with Carthaginians, then grows tyrannical by suspecting Syracusan leaders Thoenon and Sosistratus—having Thoenon executed—sparking revolts and shifting his operations back to Italy.
the virtues, is wont to display itself in divine transports and frenzies. The city being taken, he offered to Hercules most magnificently, and exhibited all varieties of shows and plays. A sort of barbarous people about Messena, called Mamertines, gave much trouble to the Greeks, and put several of them under contribution. These being numerous and valiant (from whence they had their name, equivalent in the Latin to…
Plutarch compares Lysander and Sulla: in civil chaos rulers gain despotic power, but Lysander is praised for lawful governance and merit, while Sulla is condemned as a long tyrant who uses cruelty.
In civil strife e'en villains rise to fame. And so then at Rome, when the people were distempered, and the government out of order, one or other was still raised to despotic power; no wonder, then, if Sylla reigned, when the Glauciae and Saturnini drove out the Metelli, when sons of consuls were slain in the assemblies, when silver and gold purchased men and arms, and fire and sword enacted new laws, and put down la…
Crassus and Pompey receive provincial commands for five more years: Syria for Crassus and the Spains for Pompey; Crassus boasts in private, receives encouragement from Caesar, and is cursed by the tribune Ateius when he tries to leave for a Parthian war.
Caesar his command for five years longer, and provinces for themselves, Syria, and both the Spains, which being divided by lots, Syria fell to Crassus, and the Spains to Pompey. All were well pleased with the chance, for the people were desirous that Pompey should not go far from the city, and he, being extremely fond of his wife, was very glad to continue there; but Crassus was so transported with his fortune, that…
Pompey travels through Mitylene and Rhodes, rewarding philosophers and building plans for a Rome theater, but while in Greece his wife Mucia is divorced for adultery, and Pompey returns amid rumors of possible tyranny.
to Faustus, the son of Sylla, at his request. All which Pompey was ignorant of, but afterwards, when Pharnaces came to understand it, he severely punished those that embezzled them. Pompey now having ordered all things, and established that province, took his journey homewards in greater pomp and with more festivity. For when he came to Mitylene, he gave the city their freedom upon the intercession of Theophanes, a…
Caesar’s occupation of Ariminum is reported as false, and Caesar’s crossing at the Rubicon is described as a decisive Greek-voiced act; Pompey hesitates, is accused of deceiving his opponents, and Cato urges giving him absolute authority.
that he should surrender one of the two; but Lentulus still opposing, and Cato crying out that Pompey did ill to be deceived again, the reconciliation did not take effect. In the meantime, news was brought that Caesar had occupied Ariminum, a great city in Italy, and was marching directly towards Rome with all his forces. But this latter was altogether false, for he had no more with him at that time than three hund…
Plutarch recounts hostility toward Caesar’s reported desire to be king, including reactions when he was called “king,” his refusal to rise before senators, his feigned illness, and the role of Cicero-style political satire.
when someone in his company chanced to say, the next morning Lyra would rise, replied, "Yes, in accordance with the edict," as if even this were a matter of compulsion. But that which brought upon him the most apparent and mortal hatred, was his desire of being king; which gave the common people the first occasion to quarrel with him, and proved the most specious pretense to those who had been his secret enemies all…
Cleomenes is confined despite friendly talk from Ptolemy’s favorite, hears the insult comparing him to a wild beast, loses hope, and plans violent revenge on Ptolemy rather than wait passively under an “effeminate” king.
young man's fear and anger; upon which it was agreed, that Cleomenes should be invited into a large house, and treated as formerly, but not suffered to go out again. This usage was grievous to Cleomenes, and another incident that occurred, made him feel his hopes to be yet more entirely overcast. Ptolemy, the son of Chrysermas, a favorite of the king's, had always shown civility to Cleomenes; there was a considerab…
Plutarch explains Dionysius’s fear-driven household regime, his suspicion of friends and friends’ intentions, and Dion’s efforts to educate the tyrant and summon Plato to Sicily to secure just rule.
or the ablest support of it, yet he well understood that he owed not his high position to any good-will or kindness, but to the mere necessities of the usurper. And, supposing the cause of this to be ignorance and want of education, he endeavored to induce the young man into a course of liberal studies, and to give him some knowledge of moral truths and reasonings, hoping he might thus lose his fear of virtuous livi…
Dion attempts to convert Dionysius’s rule toward virtue by pressing Plato’s arrival, but Philistus opposes him, and after Dionysius’s later banishment of Dion the struggle intensifies around Plato’s presence and influence.
sleep. So timorous was he, and so miserable a slave to his fears, yet very angry with Plato, because he would not allow him to be the valiantest man alive. Dion, as we said before, seeing the son thus deformed and spoilt in character for want of teaching, exhorted him to study, and to use all his entreaties to persuade Plato, the first of philosophers, to visit him in Sicily, and; when he came, to submit himself to …
Dionysius of Syracuse cuts off Dion’s income, gathers learned debaters, and tries to recall Plato to Sicily; Archytas and letters persuade Plato to return, promising Dion’s prospects if Plato comes.
friends who seemed concerned and angry at it, "What reason," said he, "have we to blame Ptoeodorus, when we ourselves used to do no better when we were at Syracuse?" After some little time, Dionysius, envying Dion, and jealous of the favor and interest he had among the Grecians, put a stop upon his incomes, and no longer sent him his revenues, making his own commissioners trustees of the estate. But, endeavoring to…
Caesar is suspicious of Brutus and has informers, but dismisses fear of Brutus; Cassius’s hatred is traced to his long-standing animus against tyrants, including his boyhood violence toward Faustus.
a tyrant, which they intimated that Caesar showed him, not to express any honor to his merit or virtue, but to unbend his strength, and undermine his vigor of purpose. Neither was Caesar wholly without suspicion of him nor wanted informers that accused Brutus to him; but he feared, indeed, the high spirit and the great character and the friends that he had, but thought himself secure in his moral disposition. When …
Plutarch compares Brutus and Dion, arguing Brutus lacked wisdom in the final battle and was faulted for killing his preserver, while Dion’s war against tyranny is treated as more legally and morally justified.
implacable against those that killed him. Whereas Dion's chief offense in the eyes of his fellow-citizens was his having let Dionysius escape, and not having demolished the former tyrant's tomb. In the actual conduct of war, Dion was a commander without fault, improving to the utmost those counsels which he himself gave, and, where others led him into disaster, correcting and turning everything to the best. But Bru…
Plutarch continues the Dion-versus-Brutus comparison, stressing the difficulty of fighting Caesar’s power and the careful planning of Caesar’s assassination, contrasting it with Dion’s risky choices and lack of revenge after his death.
the very enemies of Brutus would say that he had no other end or aim, from first to last, save only to restore to the Roman people their ancient government. And apart from what has just been said, the adventure against Dionysius was nothing equal with that against Caesar. For none that was familiarly conversant with Dionysius but scorned him for his life of idle amusement with wine, women, and dice; whereas it requ…
Plutarch begins Aratus’s biography: Sicyon cycles through tyrants, Abantidas kills relatives and threatens the seven-year-old Aratus, who escapes to Argos through a woman’s help and grows into a sworn enemy of tyranny.
the commentaries which he left behind him, written carelessly and by the way, as fast as he could do it, and in such words as first came to his mind. In the course of time, Dinias and Aristoteles the logician killed Abantidas, who used to be present in the marketplace at their discussions, and to make one in them; till they, taking the occasion, insensibly accustomed him to the practice, and so had opportunity to co…
Plutarch characterizes Aratus as a statesman who hates tyrants but is flexible in strategy, preferring concord and covert outwitting over open force, and then describes how Aratus obeys Achaean command and distributes royal money to redeem prisoners.
preserved their own liberty in the midst of so many great cities, military powers, and monarchies, but went on steadily saving and delivering from slavery great numbers of the Greeks. As for Aratus, he was in his behavior a true statesman, high-minded, and more intent upon the public than his private concerns, a bitter hater of tyrants, making the common good the rule and law of his friendships and enmities. So tha…
In Egypt, Aratus cultivates favor with Ptolemy through artwork collecting and then returns to Sicyon to remove tyrants’ painted representations, sparing an Aristratus image until a friend persuades him to replace the figure with a palm tree; the king rewards him with 150 talents.
Greece. Aratus had a very good judgment in them, and always took care to collect and send him the most curious and finished works, especially those of Pamphilus and Melanthus. For the Sicyonian pieces were still in the height of their reputation, as being the only ones whose colors were lasting; so that Apelles himself, even after he had become well known and admired, went thither, and gave a talent to be admitted i…
Aristippus, aided by King Antigonus, tries repeatedly to kill Aratus and is described as living in constant fear behind guarded sleeping arrangements, while Aratus relies on lawful virtue; Aratus later fights attempts to retake Argos and is defeated in part.
upon which account they were sued before the Mantineans, and, Aratus not making his appearance, Aristippus gained the cause, and had damages allowed him to the value of thirty minae. And now hating and fearing Aratus, he sought means to kill him, having the assistance herein of king Antigonus; so that Aratus was perpetually dogged and watched by those that waited for an opportunity to do this service. But there is no…
Philip of Macedonia offends by locals throwing stones, then executes them, becomes harsher and sexually abusive, undermines Aratus in Greece during Messenian sedition, and at Ithomatas sacrifices to Jupiter with Aratus present.
so that once they threw stones at him as he was going back from supper to his tent. At which Philip being much offended, immediately fined them twenty talents; and finding afterwards that they still went on disturbing matters and doing mischief in his affairs, he put them to death. But with his run of good success, prosperity began to puff him up, and various extravagant desires began to spring and show themselves in…
Plutarch contrasts Aratus’s ceremonial cults at Sicyon with Philip’s later brutal tyranny, noting Roman defeat, fines, hostage-taking, his son’s murder, and Perseus’s succession, while also transitioning to the Artaxerxes biography.
Now the first of these was performed by the priest of Jupiter Soter, the second by the priest of Aratus, wearing a band around his head, not pure white, but mingled with purple. Hymns were sung to the harp by the singers of the feasts of Bacchus; the procession was led up by the president of the public exercises, with the boys and young men; these were followed by the councilors wearing garlands, and other citizens s…