HKB
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Often appears with: forms of government · political legitimacy and consent · counsel and advisers to rulers · diplomacy and embassies · conquest, plunder, and captives · faction, party, and civil strife · justice as a virtue · conspiracy and assassination · empire and the rule of provinces · crime and punishment · fate, destiny, and necessity · religious persecution and toleration
Usually: narrative (265) · detachment (256) · the fall of the great (234) · argument (185) · indignation (98) · skepticism (82) · injustice endured (67) · censure (67) · sudden reversal of fortune (65) · betrayal (63)
“Because the people loved peace, and for this reason they loved the unaspiring prince, whilst the soldiers loved the warlike prince who was bold, cruel, and rapacious.” Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince · observation
“Antoninus had contumeliously killed a brother of that centurion, whom also he daily threatened, yet retained in his bodyguard; which, as it turned out, was a rash thing to do, and proved the emperor’s ruin.” Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince · insight
“States that rise unexpectedly, then, like all other things in nature which are born and grow rapidly, cannot leave their foundations and correspondencies fixed in such a way that the first storm will not overthrow them.” Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince · insight
“He who believes that new benefits will cause great personages to forget old injuries is deceived.” Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince · insight
“That independance being a single simple line, contained within ourselves; and reconciliation, a matter exceedingly perplexed and complicated, and in which, a treacherous capricious court is to interfere, gives the answer without a doubt.” Thomas Paine, Common Sense · insight
“The whole history of England disowns the fact. Thirty kings and two minors have reigned in that distracted kingdom since the conquest, in which time there have been (including the Revolution) no less than eight civil wars and nineteen rebellions.” Thomas Paine, Common Sense · observation
“This battle with Mr. Covey was the turning-point in my career as a slave.” Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an Amer · insight
“It was a glorious resurrection, from the tomb of slavery, to the heaven of freedom.” Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an Amer · vivid
“From this time I was never again what might be called fairly whipped, though I remained a slave four years afterwards.” Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an Amer · observation
“And if we shall not have corrected the transgression (or, in the event of our being out of the realm, if our justiciar shall not have corrected it) within forty days… the four barons aforesaid shall refer that matter to the rest of the five-and-twenty barons, and those five-and-twenty barons shall… distrain and distress us… until redress has been obtained as they deem fit, saving harmless our own person, and the persons of our queen and children.” Anonymous, The Magna Carta · insight
“Pity is a rebel passion. Its hand is against the strong, against the organised force of society, against conventional sanctions and accepted Gods.” Euripides, The Trojan women of Euripides · insight
“The history of all past society has consisted in the development of class antagonisms, antagonisms that assumed different forms at different epochs.” Karl Marx; Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party · insight
In “Reconstruction,” Douglass urges the Thirty-ninth Congress to adopt statesmanlike reconstruction, arguing the outcome of the Civil War must determine whether the nation is rebuilt on loyalty, liberty, and equality.
profound interest. Questions of vast moment, left undecided by the last session of Congress, must be manfully grappled with by this. No political skirmishing will avail. The occasion demands statesmanship. Whether the tremendous war so heroically fought and so victoriously ended shall pass into history a miserable failure, barren of permanent results,—a scandalous and shocking waste of blood and treasure,—a strife f…
Douglass maintains Congress has now had time and facts to justify radical reconstruction, contrasting prior half-measures and describing public enthusiasm for equal rights and impartial suffrage.
to obscure the way. Truth shines with brighter light and intenser heat at every moment, and a country torn and rent and bleeding implores relief from its distress and agony. If time was at first needed, Congress has now had time. All the requisite materials from which to form an intelligent judgment are now before it. Whether its members look at the origin, the progress, the termination of the war, or at the mockery…
Douglass portrays the President’s campaign against Congress’s reconstruction plan as disgraceful, then argues Congress must begin with a “clean slate” in the former Confederate states and protect loyal Black and white citizens through enfranchisement.
by the people. The high reconstructive powers which he so confidently, ostentatiously, and haughtily claimed, have been disallowed, denounced, and utterly repudiated; while those claimed by Congress have been confirmed. Of the spirit and magnitude of the canvass nothing need be said. The appeal was to the people, and the verdict was worthy of the tribunal. Upon an occasion of his own selection, with the advice and a…
The memoir summarizes the diary’s scope (1659-1669), Pepys’s later political shifts around the Restoration and the Dutch War era, and his retirement and death in 1703 at Clapham.
Admiralty,) to retain his situation upon the accession of William and Mary; and he retired into private life' accordingly, but without being followed thither, either by persecution or ill will. The Diary, as already explained, comprehends ten years of Mr. Pepys official life, extending from January, 1659-60, to May, 1669. It is highly necessary to keep in mind that Mr. Pepys was only thirty-seven years of age when …
Pepys reports the Parliament’s vote about posthumous punishment for Cromwell and others, and later learns of plots against the King and Monk, Prince/royal deaths and marriages, and further political unrest; he also reflects on 1660-61.
had a letter brought me from my Lord to get a ship ready to carry the Queen's things over to France, she being to go within five or six days. 27th. To Westminster Hall, and in King Street there being a great stop of coaches, there was a falling out between a drayman and my Lord Chesterfield's coachman, and one of his footmen killed. Mr. Moore told me how the House had this day voted the King to have all the Excise…
Pepys notes the House of Commons’ acts against employing people from the late civil troubles, fears he may be affected, and describes Parliament-men debating Scottish news and possible rebellion.
Church; which will be fatal to a great many, and makes me doubt lest I myself, with all my innocence during the late times, should be brought in, being employed in the Exchequer; but, I hope, God will provide for me. 10th. Put on a black cloth suit, with white lynings under all, as the fashion is to wear, to appear under the breeches. I walked to St. James's, and was there at masse, and was forced in the croud to …
Pepys records the judges ruling the Chancellor’s articles not treason, describes the King and Queen’s public ride while Castlemaine and Stewart’s appearances are commented on, and later notes the Lords’ vote to investigate the matter.
21st. This day the Parliament kept a fast for the present unseasonable weather. 22nd. To my Lord Crewe's. My Lord not being come home, I met and staid below with Captn. Ferrers, who was come to wait upon my Lady Jemimah to St. James's, she being one of the four ladies that hold up the mantle at the christening this afternoon of the Duke's child (a boy). In discourse of the ladies at Court, Captn. Ferrers tells me…
Pepys describes going to the fleet, French capture of St. Christopher, renewed conflict over naval administration, and later notes the City’s vote to lend the King 100,000l.
I am troubled at, and do fear may in violence break out upon this office some time or other; for we shall not be able to carry on the business. 21st. Up, and at the office all the morning; where by several circumstances I find Sir W. Coventry and the Duke of Albemarle do not agree as they used to do; Sir W. Coventry commending Aylett, (in some reproach to the Duke), whom the Duke hath put out for want of courage; a…
Pepys learns the King prorogues Parliament to October, discusses hopes to pacify tensions over Lord Mordaunt, reflects on Cromwell, records church and music outings, and evaluates improvements in the theatre after the Great Fire.
away, leaving her in their possession, and carried away by them: a ship built at Bristoll the last year, of fifty guns and upwards, and a most excellent good ship. 8th. Sir W. Batten come this morning from the House, where the King hath prorogued this Parliament to October next. I am glad they are up. The Bill for Accounts was not offered, the party being willing to let it fall; but the King did tell them he expe…
Pepys records the King’s return to Whitehall and the sealing of Anglesy’s suspension, discusses changes in Ireland and planned naval and Admiralty shifts, and notes rumours about dissolving Parliament.
for his sake to have him cheerful. After dinner up, and looked up and down the house, and so to the cellar; and thence I slipt away without taking leave. 4th. To White Hall; and there I find the King and Duke of York came the last night, and every body's mouth full of my Lord Anglesy's suspension being sealed, which it was, it seems, yesterday; so that he is prevented in his remedy at the Council. And, it seems, th…
Pepys discusses the politics of Parliament meeting and Buckingham’s strategy, describes Anglesy’s petition and the King’s response, and notes ongoing prize disputes involving Sandwich.
to suspect his mismanagement of his money in Ireland did make him think it unfit to trust him with his Treasury in England till he was satisfied in the former. 15th. After dinner, W. How to tell me what hath happened between him and the Commissioners of late, who are hot again, more than ever, about my Lord Sandwich's business of prizes; which I am troubled for, and the more because of the great security and neglec…
Pepys continues the aftermath of the Hewer-Middleton conflict, plans to make Middleton look foolish, consults the Duke of York and Brouncker, and hears about Parliament proroguing and new houses collapsing.
my being troubled; but such is the weakness of my nature that I could not help it, which vexes me, showing me how unable I am to live with difficulties. 10th. Up, and to the office, where busy all the morning: Middleton not there, so no words or looks of him. At noon home to dinner; and so to the office, and there all the afternoon busy. And at night W. Hewer home with me; and we think we have got matter enough t…
On March 1 Pepys hears Lady Paulina Montagu has died, notes Parliament prorogued and hoped time to travel to France, and reports a planned duel between Buckingham and Halifax or Coventry involving Sir W. Coventry being sent to the Tower.
the people, so many as to make up above 10l. in the whole house! But I plainly discern the musick is the better, by how much the house the emptier. 1668-9. MARCH 1. I do hear that my Lady Paulina Montagu did die yesterday! at which I went to my Lord's lodgings, but he is shut up with sorrow, and so not to be spoken with: and therefore I returned, and to Westminster Hall, where I have not been, I think, in some mo…
Pepys shows his Navy administration draft to Sir W. Coventry and the Duke of York, adjusts phrasing about the Navy’s disruption under rebellion, and copies a Northumberland passage that predicts Chatham’s troubles.
left many good notes of sermons and religion wrote with her own hand, which nobody ever knew of: which I am glad of; but she was always a peevish lady. 17th. To Sir W. Coventry's, reading over first my draught of the administration of the Navy, which he do like very well; and so fell to talk of his late disgrace, and how basely and in what a mean manner the Duke of Buckingham hath proceeded against him,-- not like …
As Potidaea revolts after negotiation failures, Perdiccas promotes a wider Thracian revolt, Aristeus and Corinthian reinforcements arrive, Athens sends troops under Callias, and a battle leads to an Athenian investment of Potidaea.
to Macedonia, their original destination, and, having established themselves there, carried on war in co-operation with Philip, and the brothers of Derdas, who had invaded the country from the interior. Meanwhile the Corinthians, with Potidæa in revolt and the Athenian ships on the coast of Macedonia, alarmed for the safety of the place and thinking its danger theirs, sent volunteers from Corinth, and mercenaries fr…
Sthenelaidas and Sparta vote for war, accusing Athens of harming allies and urging immediate assistance, then Thucydides shifts to historical background on how Athens’ power rose from Persian War to the Peloponnesian War.
From the end of the Persian to the beginning of the Peloponnesian War—The Progress from Supremacy to Empire The way in which Athens came to be placed in the circumstances under which her power grew was this. After the Medes had returned from Europe, defeated by sea and land by the Hellenes, and after those of them who had fled with their ships to Mycale had been destroyed, Leotychides, king of the Lacedaemonians, th…
Pausanias leads Hellenes from Sparta with ships to Cyprus and Byzantium but becomes abusive; the Ionian and newly freed allies turn to Athens, pausing Pausanias’s command and enabling Athens to manage emerging supremacy.
go down into Piraeus, and defy the world with their fleet. Thus, therefore, the Athenians completed their wall, and commenced their other buildings immediately after the retreat of the Mede. Meanwhile Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, was sent out from Lacedaemon as commander-in-chief of the Hellenes, with twenty ships from Peloponnese. With him sailed the Athenians with thirty ships, and a number of the other allies. …
Pausanias is investigated despite limited proof, then a servant informs on a forged/altered death order, and Pausanias takes sanctuary in the Brazen House, is starved to death, and replaced by statues after Delphi’s command.
them to do this to the King), soon compromised the matter and came out again, and offered himself for trial to any who wished to institute an inquiry concerning him. Now the Spartans had no tangible proof against him—neither his enemies nor the nation—of that indubitable kind required for the punishment of a member of the royal family, and at that moment in high office; he being regent for his first cousin King Plei…
Pericles advises Athenians to refuse any concession to the Peloponnesians, arguing that accepting commands before legal settlement means slavery and that the immediate cause is a test of resolve.
of peace. Among them came forward Pericles, son of Xanthippus, the first man of his time at Athens, ablest alike in counsel and in action, and gave the following advice: “There is one principle, Athenians, which I hold to through everything, and that is the principle of no concession to the Peloponnesians. I know that the spirit which inspires men while they are being persuaded to make war is not always retained in …
After peace, John promises removals from office, returns confiscated lands and charters, sets rules for prisoners on a woman’s appeal, remits unlawful fines, and provides special treatment and legal frameworks for Welsh claims.
is restored, we will remove from the kingdom all the foreign knights, bowmen, their attendants, and the mercenaries that have come to it, to its harm, with horses and arms. * To any man whom we have deprived or dispossessed of lands, castles, liberties, or rights, without the lawful judgement of his equals, we will at once restore these. In cases of dispute the matter shall be resolved by the judgement of the twenty…
A detailed security clause empowers twenty-five barons: they demand redress within forty days, can distress the king by seizing castles while safeguarding the queen and children, and require eventual oaths to uphold the charter.
far as pertains to us toward our men, shall be observed by all of our kingdom, as well clergy as laymen, as far as pertains to them toward their men. 61. Since, moreover, for God and the amendment of our kingdom and for the better allaying of the quarrel that has arisen between us and our barons, we have granted all these concessions, desirous that they should enjoy them in complete and firm endurance for ever, we g…
The Declaration explains why a people may separate from another government, asserting self-evident equality, natural unalienable rights, and the right/duty to alter or abolish destructive governments, then frames Britain’s king as driving a tyrannical pattern with listed abuses.
The Declaration of Independence of The United States of America When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should …
The text continues enumerating King George III’s alleged abuses—military, taxation, judicial manipulation, restrictions on trial by jury, displacement, suspension of legislatures, war, and violence—then states that colonies must separate, treats Britain as enemy in war yet friends in peace, and declares independence and powers of the new states.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on…
Telemachus reunites with Ulysses in disguise, with Eumaeus weeping for joy, and Telemachus learns that Ulysses arrived as a “Cretan” refugee; Telemachus discusses protecting him from suitors and explains the household’s ruin by the wooers.
ULYSSES REVEALS HIMSELF TO TELEMACHUS. Meanwhile Ulysses and the swineherd had lit a fire in the hut and were were getting breakfast ready at daybreak, for they had sent the men out with the pigs. When Telemachus came up, the dogs did not bark but fawned upon him, so Ulysses, hearing the sound of feet and noticing that the dogs did not bark, said to Eumaeus: “Eumaeus, I hear footsteps; I suppose one of your men or …
At dawn Telemachus goes to town, instructing his father-disguised as a beggar to request food, and reunites emotionally with Penelope; later he and Eumaeus discuss the town’s news and Telemachus proceeds toward the assembly.
TELEMACHUS AND HIS MOTHER MEET—ULYSSES AND EUMAEUS COME DOWN TO THE TOWN, AND ULYSSES IS INSULTED BY MELANTHIUS—HE IS RECOGNISED BY THE DOG ARGOS—HE IS INSULTED AND PRESENTLY STRUCK BY ANTINOUS WITH A STOOL—PENELOPE DESIRES THAT HE SHALL BE SENT TO HER. When the child of morning, rosy-fingered Dawn, appeared, Telemachus bound on his sandals and took a strong spear that suited his hands, for he wanted to go into the …
Agamemnon’s shade blames a long-standing pattern of women’s counsel for the doom of the house of Atreus, then advises secrecy toward Penelope and secret landing at Ithaca, while Odysseus and Agamemnon weep in grief.
unfriendly men do thee hurt upon the land, whilst thou wert cutting off their oxen and fair flocks of sheep, or fighting to win a city and the women thereof?’ “So spake I, and straightway he answered, and said unto me: ‘Son of Laertes, of the seed of Zeus, Odysseus of many devices, it was not Poseidon that smote me in my ships, and raised the dolorous blast of contrary winds, nor did unfriendly men do me hurt upon t…
Du Bois traces African American responses from before 1750 through the slave revolts of 1800, 1822, and 1831, the rise of the African Church in northern cities, and the later emergence of abolitionists and leaders like Frederick Douglass.
the earnest songs of Phyllis, in the martyrdom of Attucks, the fighting of Salem and Poor, the intellectual accomplishments of Banneker and Derham, and the political demands of the Cuffes. Stern financial and social stress after the war cooled much of the previous humanitarian ardor. The disappointment and impatience of the Negroes at the persistence of slavery and serfdom voiced itself in two movements. The slaves …
He details legal and informal barriers to Black labor mobility—migration-agent laws, white “vouching” for unknown Black people, and county-level oppression—arguing these helped produce the Black Belt and later Migration to Town.
economic depths of the black American peasant; and in a study of the rise and condition of the Negro freeholder we must trace his economic progress from the modern serfdom. Even in the better-ordered country districts of the South the free movement of agricultural laborers is hindered by the migration-agent laws. The “Associated Press” recently informed the world of the arrest of a young white man in Southern Georgi…
After Paul’s defense, Agrippa and Festus agree he seems innocent but notes that only his appeal to Caesar prevented release; the narrative shifts to Paul’s voyage.
say should come, that Christ should suffer, and that he should be the first that should rise from death, and should shew light unto the people, and to the gentiles. As he thus answered for himself: Festus said with a loud voice: Paul, thou art besides thyself. Much learning hath made thee mad. And Paul said: I am not mad most dear Festus: but speak the words of truth and soberness. The king knoweth of these things, …
Paul continues to Philippians, saying he counts former legal righteousness as loss to gain Christ, presses toward the goal, warns of enemies of the cross, and calls Euodias and Syntyche to be reconciled and to rejoice.
Pharisee, and as concerning ferventness I persecuted the congregation, and as touching the righteousness which is in the law I was such a one as no man could complain on. But the things that were winning unto me I counted loss for Christe's sake. Yee I think all things but loss for that excellent knowledge's sake of Christ Iesu my lord. For whom I have counted all thing loss, and do judge them but dung, that I might…
Livy reports Luceria’s betrayal to the Samnites, harsh reprisals and Roman debate about colonizing it, then describes a Campanian and Roman-wide conspiracy inquiry led by a dictator and master of the horse.
the case; it then began to descend to persons of inferior rank; and, at length, was suppressed, by means of those factions and cabals against which it had been instituted. 27. The accounts received of these matters, but more especially the hope of a revolt in Campania, for which a conspiracy had been formed, recalled the Samnites, who were turning towards Apulia, back to Caudium; so that from thence, being near, the…
Auxiliary Gauls in the Roman camp massacre guards, two thousand infantry and two hundred horse defect to Hannibal, and Scipio relocates to safer ground near the Trebia as more events unfold at Clastidium.
fortified his camp six miles from Placentia, and on the following day, having drawn up his line of battle in sight of the enemy, gave them an opportunity of fighting. 48. On the following night a slaughter was made in the Roman camp by the auxiliary Gauls, which appeared greater from the tumult than it proved in reality. Two thousand infantry and two hundred horse, having killed the guards at the gates, desert to Ha…
Livy argues that Rome’s ally defections after Cannae—by many Italian peoples including the Atellani, Samnites, Bruttians, Lucanians, Tarentines, and Gauls—did not prompt Romans to consider peace.
How much greater this disaster was than any preceding, even this is a proof, that such of the allies as had stood firm till that day then began to waver, for no other cause certainly but that they despaired of the empire. The people who revolted to the Carthaginians were these: the Atellani, Calatini, the Hirpini, some of the Apulians, the Samnites, except the Pentrians, all the Bruttians, and the Lucanians. Besides …
On the return from Rome, Vibius Virius convinces the ambassadors that Campanians can bargain sovereignty with Hannibal; they delay revolt briefly, then decide to send ambassadors to Hannibal instead.
were serving in the Roman armies, particularly three hundred horsemen, the flower of the Campanian nobility, had been selected and sent by the Romans to garrison the cities of Sicily. 5. The parents and relations of these men with difficulty obtained that ambassadors should be sent to the Roman consul. The consul, who had not yet set out for Canusium, they found at Venusia with a few half-armed troops, an object of …
Livy recounts efforts to repair Rome’s weakened institutions by refilling the senate after years of losses, disputes over granting Latin senators freedom, and the decision to create a censor-like dictator.
Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, in the room of Publius Scantinius deceased, and of Lucius Aemilius Paulus the consul, and of Quintus Aelius Paetus, who had fallen in the battle of Cannae. 22. The fathers having repaired, as far as human counsels could effect it, the other losses from a continued series of unfortunate events, at length turned their attention on themselves, on the emptiness of the senate-house, and the pauci…
Masinissa, after learning of family deaths, moves to Mauritania seeking help, defeats the protector’s regime at Thapsus, and later reconciles with Lacumaces and Mezetulus to strengthen his position.
to the king Oesalces; and, sending ambassadors for that purpose, renewed an old connexion of hospitality with Syphax, taking all these measures with a view to obtain assistance against Masinissa. 30. Masinissa, hearing of the death of his uncle, and afterwards that his cousin-german was slain, passed over out of Spain into Mauritania. Bocchar was king of the Moors at that time. Applying to him as a suppliant, he suc…
Hasdrubal flees to a nearby African city, then the Romans occupy it peacefully and Carthage responds to the disaster: it debates peace versus recalling Hannibal, entrusts reinforcements to Syphax and Hasdrubal, and reunites their forces.
horses, and six elephants. Eight elephants were destroyed either by fire or sword, and a great quantity of arms taken. All the latter the general dedicated to Vulcan and burnt. 7. Hasdrubal, in his flight, had made for the nearest city of the Africans, accompanied by a few attendants; and hither all those who survived, following the footsteps of their general had betaken themselves. But afterwards, fearing lest he s…
Livy recounts the deaths and reign of King Attalus at Pergamum and then turns to a desperate insurrection in Farther Spain, reported by Marcus Helvius to the Roman Senate.
all the transactions as they occurred in that quarter, when I am scarcely equal to the task of recounting those which immediately concern the war in which Rome was engaged. 21. At this time king Attalus, having fallen sick at Thebes, had been carried thence to Pergamus, died at the age of seventy-one after he had reigned forty-four years. To this man fortune had given nothing which could inspire hopes of a throne ex…
After Quinctius returns to Corinth, Aetolians secretly plan uprisings across Greece, seize Demetrias by staged entry and factional killings, and prepare violence under the cover of delivering an exile.
Italy, from his camp on the banks of the Tiber." Such was the degree of madness which possessed, at that time, both the nation of the Aetolians and their magistrates. 34. Quinctius and the ambassadors returned to Corinth. The Aetolians, that they might appear to intend taking every step through Antiochus, and none directly of themselves, and, sitting inactive, to be waiting for the arrival of the king, though they d…
Douglass describes his fight with Mr. Covey as the turning point that revived his sense of manhood, ending repeated whippings, and explains Covey’s delay to protect his reputation.
anger. He would occasionally say, he didn’t want to get hold of me again. “No,” thought I, “you need not; for you will come off worse than you did before.” This battle with Mr. Covey was the turning-point in my career as a slave. It rekindled the few expiring embers of freedom, and revived within me a sense of my own manhood. It recalled the departed self-confidence, and inspired me again with a determination to be …
Herzl turns increasingly toward Zionism as self-respect becomes central in his play, and the Dreyfus affair in late-1890s France convinces him that reconciliation is unlikely.
a lawyer by vocation and avocation. For the hero was Herzl himself, and the transformation which unfolded in Dr. Jacob Samuel was the transformation which was unfolding in Theodore Herzl. He belongs utterly to the Jews; it is for them that he fights, and, dying, he still sees himself as the fighter for their future. What future Jacob Samuel foresaw for the Jews in his dying moments remained unclear. It would appear …
Herzl argues the capital-raising and emigration must avoid crises and rising Anti-Semitism, then shifts to local groups and “transmigration,” stressing voluntary group emigration, managing travel classes, and arranging housing on arrival.
But these financial conflicts would bring about all sorts of crises; the countries in which they occurred would suffer, and Anti-Semitism would become rampant. This method is therefore not to be recommended. I have merely suggested it, because it comes up in the course of the logical development of the idea. I also do not know whether smaller private banks would be willing to adopt it. In any case, even the refusa…
Herzl insists emigration can be carried out only with free Jewish consent, argues injustice would drive Jews into revolution, denies that his plan provides usable “weapons” to enemies, and argues enthusiasm plus technology can make it real.
say that I am furnishing the Anti-Semites with weapons. Why so? Because I admit the truth? Because I do not maintain that there are none but excellent men against us? Will not people say that I am showing our enemies the way to injure us? This I absolutely dispute. My proposal could only be carried out with the free consent of a majority of Jews. Action may be taken against individuals or even against groups of the …
In Federalist No. IX, Hamilton argues that a firm Union protects against domestic faction and insurrection, using the histories of Greece and Italy to illustrate cyclical tyranny and anarchy, then praises institutional checks.
of government should pervert the direction and tarnish the lustre of those bright talents and exalted endowments for which the favored soils that produced them have been so justly celebrated. From the disorders that disfigure the annals of those republics the advocates of despotism have drawn arguments, not only against the forms of republican government, but against the very principles of civil liberty. They have d…
Hamilton argues that if disorderly private actors oppose the national government, magistrates can suppress disturbances, and that extreme national “mortal feuds” may cause revolutions that no government can fully prevent.
not often be made with levity or rashness, because they could seldom be made without danger to the authors, unless in cases of a tyrannical exercise of the federal authority. If opposition to the national government should arise from the disorderly conduct of refractory or seditious individuals, it could be overcome by the same means which are daily employed against the same evil under the State governments. The mag…
They describe how Greek confederacies deteriorated: the Amphictyons’ authority failed despite war and religion, Philip of Macedon exploited disputes, and the Achaean league later survived longer but was finally shattered by Roman interference.
were, more or fewer of them, eternally the dupes or the hirelings of the common enemy. The intervals of foreign war were filled up by domestic vicissitudes convulsions, and carnage. After the conclusion of the war with Xerxes, it appears that the Lacedaemonians required that a number of the cities should be turned out of the confederacy for the unfaithful part they had acted. The Athenians, finding that the Lacedaem…
Hamilton explains that repeated attempts by extraordinary assemblies failed to reform the Dutch system, and he urges Americans to draw a lesson from these federal precedents to avoid a sovereignty-over-sovereigns that replaces law with force.
by tampering with the provinces and cities. In 1726, the treaty of Hanover was delayed by these means a whole year. Instances of a like nature are numerous and notorious. In critical emergencies, the States-General are often compelled to overleap their constitutional bounds. In 1688, they concluded a treaty of themselves at the risk of their heads. The treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, by which their independence was f…
Madison says the convention acted under a perceived crisis, with commissioners expecting the reform was necessary, referencing irregular prior proposals and Congress’s earlier assumptions of power, and stressing that submission is to the people.
It may be collected from their proceedings, that they were deeply and unanimously impressed with the crisis, which had led their country almost with one voice to make so singular and solemn an experiment for correcting the errors of a system by which this crisis had been produced; that they were no less deeply and unanimously convinced that such a reform as they have proposed was absolutely necessary to effect the pu…
In Federalist No. 49, Madison reviews Jefferson’s proposed convention-trigger rule (two-thirds concurrence) for correcting constitutional breaches, but objects that it may not address two-department alliances and would weaken stability by frequent popular appeals.
the more worthy of attention as it equally displays a fervent attachment to republican government and an enlightened view of the dangerous propensities against which it ought to be guarded. One of the precautions which he proposes, and on which he appears ultimately to rely as a palladium to the weaker departments of power against the invasions of the stronger, is perhaps altogether his own, and as it immediately re…
Hamilton or Madison argues that when there is no higher Constitution, governments may change election periods and even extend themselves, creating alarm that annual elections supposedly prevent, but that such fears do not apply federally.
They have accordingly, in several instances, actually changed, by legislative acts, some of the most fundamental articles of the government. They have in particular, on several occasions, changed the period of election; and, on the last occasion, not only introduced septennial in place of triennial elections, but by the same act, continued themselves in place four years beyond the term for which they were elected by …
He warns that multiplying representatives may make government more democratic in appearance but more oligarchic in reality, and he rejects raising quorum/majority requirements because it would transfer rule to minorities and enable secession.
single hand. On the same principle, the more multitudinous a representative assembly may be rendered, the more it will partake of the infirmities incident to collective meetings of the people. Ignorance will be the dupe of cunning, and passion the slave of sophistry and declamation. The people can never err more than in supposing that by multiplying their representatives beyond a certain limit, they strengthen the b…
He argues that if states had exclusive control over federal election regulations, they could effectively end the Union by obstructing elections, so a reserved congressional power is the rational constitutional safeguard.
They could at any moment annihilate it, by neglecting to provide for the choice of persons to administer its affairs. It is to little purpose to say, that a neglect or omission of this kind would not be likely to take place. The constitutional possibility of the thing, without an equivalent for the risk, is an unanswerable objection. Nor has any satisfactory reason been yet assigned for incurring that risk. The extra…
Hamilton further supports his argument with Spartan, Roman, and Carthaginian examples, claiming the people’s representatives ultimately overcame senates, and concluding that the House and people could restore the Constitution if needed.
continual encroachments of the House of Representatives; and that it no sooner lost the support of the monarch, than it was actually crushed by the weight of the popular branch. As far as antiquity can instruct us on this subject, its examples support the reasoning which we have employed. In Sparta, the Ephori, the annual representatives of the people, were found an overmatch for the senate for life, continually gai…
In concluding remarks to the people of New York, Hamilton claims the Constitution’s alleged defects mirror flaws in New York’s own charter, highlights union’s added safeguards (including anti-monarchy measures), and urges honest judgment.
To the People of the State of New York: According to the formal division of the subject of these papers, announced in my first number, there would appear still to remain for discussion two points: “the analogy of the proposed government to your own State constitution,” and “the additional security which its adoption will afford to republican government, to liberty, and to property.” But these heads have been so full…
The author argues that adopting the imperfect U.S. Constitution should not be delayed to make it perfect, because collective bodies will inevitably compromise and new conventions are unlikely.
which it has been opposed. I am persuaded that it is the best which our political situation, habits, and opinions will admit, and superior to any the revolution has produced. Concessions on the part of the friends of the plan, that it has not a claim to absolute perfection, have afforded matter of no small triumph to its enemies. “Why,” say they, “should we adopt an imperfect thing? Why not amend it and make it perf…
He counters objections that national authorities would resist change by citing the Constitution’s Article V requirement that Congress must call an amendment convention when two-thirds request it.
to the general liberty or security of the people. We may safely rely on the disposition of the State legislatures to erect barriers against the encroachments of the national authority. If the foregoing argument is a fallacy, certain it is that I am myself deceived by it, for it is, in my conception, one of those rare instances in which a political truth can be brought to the test of a mathematical demonstration. Tho…
Jay defends the credibility of Congress and the Philadelphia convention, arguing that people previously relied on Congress’s prudent measures, and claims union remains central, warning that rejecting the plan risks dismemberment.
prosperity, and therefore that it was not less their inclination than their duty to recommend only such measures as, after the most mature deliberation, they really thought prudent and advisable. These and similar considerations then induced the people to rely greatly on the judgment and integrity of the Congress; and they took their advice, notwithstanding the various arts and endeavors used to deter them from it. …
Madison concludes that frontier states gain more from national protection despite distance, ending with pleas to reject disunion and defend the new constitution against claims of novelty.
from the Union in some respects than the less distant States, they will derive greater benefit from it in other respects, and thus the proper equilibrium will be maintained throughout. I submit to you, my fellow-citizens, these considerations, in full confidence that the good sense which has so often marked your decisions will allow them their due weight and effect; and that you will never suffer difficulties, howev…
Hamilton begins Federalist No. 15 by framing the coming case that the existing Confederation is insufficient to preserve the Union, promising proof from overlooked facts and arguments.
To the People of the State of New York. IN THE course of the preceding papers, I have endeavored, my fellow citizens, to place before you, in a clear and convincing light, the importance of Union to your political safety and happiness. I have unfolded to you a complication of dangers to which you would be exposed, should you permit that sacred knot which binds the people of America together be severed or dissolved b…
Hamilton answers that opposition could be overcome by the same machinery used against disorderly private individuals, and that extraordinary revolutions exceed any government’s ability to prevent.
not often be made with levity or rashness, because they could seldom be made without danger to the authors, unless in cases of a tyrannical exercise of the federal authority. If opposition to the national government should arise from the disorderly conduct of refractory or seditious individuals, it could be overcome by the same means which are daily employed against the same evil under the State governments. The mag…