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Often appears with: religious persecution and toleration · scripture and its interpretation · the nature and attributes of God · counsel and advisers to rulers · censorship and the press · justice as a virtue · conversion and faith · crime and punishment · prayer and worship · fate, destiny, and necessity · sin, guilt, and repentance · miracles and divine intervention
Usually: argument (174) · skepticism (112) · censure (107) · crisis of belief (105) · detachment (85) · indignation (78) · exhortation (68) · narrative (39) · reflection (33) · commentary or gloss (27)
“Prior to his conversion, he relied upon his own depravity to shield and sustain him in his savage barbarity; but after his conversion, he found religious sanction and support for his slaveholding cruelty.” Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an Amer · observation
“As the paths of error are various and infinite, the Gnostics were imperceptibly divided into more than fifty particular sects, of whom the most celebrated appear to have been the Basilidians, the Valentinians, the Marcionites, and, in a still later period, the Manichæans.” Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire · vivid
“So that below, not sleeping, people dream, Believing they speak truth, and not believing; And in the last is greater sin and shame.” Dante Alighieri, Divine Comedy, Longfellow's Translation, Paradise · observation
“These cases of relationship, without identity, of the inhabitants of seas now disjoined, and likewise of the past and present inhabitants of the temperate lands of North America and Europe, are inexplicable on the theory of creation.” Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selecti · insight
“Depend upon it, Sir, severe laws, steadily enforced, would be sufficient against those evils, and would promote marriage.” James Boswell, Boswell's Life of Johnson · precept
“In all countries there has been fornication, as in all countries there has been theft; but there may be more or less of the one, as well as of the other, in proportion to the force of law.” James Boswell, Boswell's Life of Johnson · insight
“Do not talk thus of what is so aweful. I know not what time GOD will allow me in this world. There are many things which I wish to do.” James Boswell, Boswell's Life of Johnson · observation
“And particularly, in the question of Transubstantiation; where after certain words spoken, they that say, the White-nesse, Round-nesse, Magni-tude, Quali-ty, Corruptibili-ty, all which are incorporeall, &c. go out of the Wafer, into the Body of our blessed Saviour, do they not make those Nesses, Tudes and Ties, to be so many spirits possessing his body?” Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan · wit
“For as in naturall things, men of judgement require naturall signes, and arguments; so in supernaturall things, they require signes supernaturall, (which are Miracles,) before they consent inwardly, and from their hearts.” Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan · insight
“And therefore Antichrist in the proper signification hath two essentiall marks; One, that he denyeth Jesus to be Christ; and another that he professeth himselfe to bee Christ.” Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan · insight
“For, the Word was made flesh, that Thy wisdom, whereby Thou createdst all things, might provide milk for our infant state.” Augustine, of Hippo, Saint, The Confessions of St. Augustine · insight
“To worship an Image, is voluntarily to doe those externall acts, which are signes of honoring either the matter of the Image, which is Wood, Stone, or Metall, or some other visible creature; or the Phantasme of the brain.” Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan · precept
Luther argues that true repentance is a lifelong inward change shown outwardly, that the pope cannot remit guilt or penalties except within what God allows, and that indulgence preachers falsely claim total forgiveness and salvation.
20. Therefore by "full remission of all penalties" the pope means not actually "of all," but only of those imposed by himself. 21. Therefore those preachers of indulgences are in error, who say that by the pope's indulgences a man is freed from every penalty, and saved; 22. Whereas he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which, according to the canons, they would have had to pay in this life. 23. If it is at al…
The author considers claims that Muhammad drew Christian ideas from Gnosticism, argues for limited evidence of gnostic teaching in Arabia, and suggests Qur'an views could reflect modified adoption of ideas from sects like Ebionites and Sabeites.
as long as he continued true to the principles of the Hanyfs, but to have quitted him in disgust at his subsequent proceedings, and to have died an orthodox Christian. It has been supposed that Muhammad derived many of his notions concerning Christianity from Gnosticism, and that it is to the numerous gnostic sects the Koran alludes when it reproaches the Christians with having "split up their religion into parties.…
Continuing “The Cave,” the text repeats guidance counsel, forbids disputing too much or asking Christians, and states the Seven Sleepers’ disputed stay length as 300 years plus nine.
This is one of the signs of God. Guided indeed is he whom God guideth; but for him whom He misleadeth, thou shalt by no means find a patron, director. And thou wouldst have deemed them awake,3 though they were sleeping: and we turned them to the right and to the left. And in the entry lay their dog with paws outstretched.4 Hadst thou come suddenly upon them, thou wouldst surely have turned thy back on them in flight…
It continues with Quranic eschatology and divine decree, describing how God opens or narrows hearts to Islam, how djinn and humans are judged for mutual worship, and how unjust religious prohibitions arise.
of God, be accorded to us." God best knoweth where to place his mission. Disgrace with God, and a vehement punishment shall come on the transgressors for their crafty plottings. And whom God shall please to guide, that man's breast will He open to Islam; but whom He shall please to mislead, strait and narrow will He make his breast, as though he were mounting up into the very Heavens! Thus doth God inflict dire puni…
It instructs the people not to exaggerate in religion, states Islamic doctrine about Jesus as an apostle and God as one, encourages humility, and teaches inheritance shares for distant kin and siblings.
Believe then, it will be better for you. But if ye believe not, then, all that is in the Heavens and the Earth is God's; and God is Knowing, Wise! O ye people of the Book! overstep not bounds in your religion;31 and of God, speak only truth. The Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, is only an apostle of God, and his Word which he conveyed into Mary, and a Spirit32 proceeding from himself. Believe therefore in God and his ap…
Darwin rejects creationism by arguing that related but non-identical plants and animals across disconnected seas and continents fit a modification theory, then surveys global evidence of Glacial action from Europe to the Americas, Himalaya, and Australia.
work), of some fish and other marine animals, in the Mediterranean and in the seas of Japan,—areas now separated by a continent and by nearly a hemisphere of equatorial ocean. These cases of relationship, without identity, of the inhabitants of seas now disjoined, and likewise of the past and present inhabitants of the temperate lands of North America and Europe, are inexplicable on the theory of creation. We cannot…
While Moses is away on the mountain, Israel makes a molten golden calf via Aaron, declares it their god who brought them out of Egypt, offers sacrifices, eats and plays, and God tells Moses the people have turned aside.
And when the people saw that it was long or Moses came down out of the mountain, they gathered them selves together and came unto Aaron and said unto him: Up and make us a god to go before us: for of this Moses the fellow that brought us out of the land of Egypt, we wote not what is become. And Aaron said unto them: pluck off the golden earings which are in the ears of your wives, your sons and of your daughters: and…
Jesus’ opponents plot against him, but he heals and quotes Isaiah’s chosen servant; he debates Pharisees accusing him of exorcisms by Beelzebub, explains his kingdom’s unity, warns against blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, and tells parables about signs, Jonah, and an unclean spirit’s return.
had wist, what this saying meaneth: I require mercy, and not sacrifice, ye would never have condemned innocents. For the son of man is lord even of the Sabbath day. And he departed thence, and went into their synagogue, and behold, there was a man, which had his hand dried up. And they asked him saying: is it lawful to heal upon the sabbath day? because they might accuse him. And he said unto them: which is he among…
He interprets tragedies as requiring repentance, curses a barren fig tree with added chances, heals a woman on the Sabbath, and rebukes synagogue leaders for hypocrisy.
be beaten with few stripes. For unto whom much is given: of him shall be much required. And to whom men much commit, the more of him will they ask. I am come to send fire on earth: and what is my desire but that it were al ready kindled? Notwithstanding I must be baptised with a baptism. And how am I pained till it be ended? Suppose ye that I am come to send peace on earth? I tell you, nay: but rather debate. For he…
The revelation addresses individual congregations—Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, and Thiatira—praising some works and warning against false teaching, with threats of removal or punishment and rewards for “overcomers.”
The second Chapter. Unto the angel of the congregation of Ephesus write: These things saith he that holdeth the vij. stars in his right hand, and walketh in the midst of the vij. golden candlesticks. I know thy works, and thy labour, and thy patience, and how thou canst not forbear them which are evil: and examinedst them which say they are apostles, and are not: and hast found them liars. And hast suffered, and has…
He condemns Captain Auld and his religious piety, arguing that conversion makes him worse; he lists ministers who visited and narrates violent beatings justified by Scripture.
our pious mistress was aware of the fact; and yet that mistress and her husband would kneel every morning, and pray that God would bless them in basket and store! Bad as all slaveholders are, we seldom meet one destitute of every element of character commanding respect. My master was one of this rare sort. I do not know of one single noble act ever performed by him. The leading trait in his character was meanness; a…
Rodwell describes his method for ordering suras using traditional lists and scholarly criticism (Weil, Muir, Nöldeke), and he characterizes Qur’an suras by shifting tone from early poetic Mecca admonitions to later Medina legislation and war rhetoric.
and honesty of purpose which forbade him, as it certainly did, in any way to tamper with the sacred text, to suppress contradictory, and exclude or soften down inaccurate, statements. The arrangement of the Suras in this translation is based partly upon the traditions of the Muhammadans themselves, with reference especially to the ancient chronological list printed by Weil in his Mohammed der Prophet, as well as upo…
It speculates about how Muhammad may have adopted ideas from gnostic and Jewish-Christian sects, discusses crucifixion doctrine as a possible reconciliation point, and compares textual parallels used to argue borrowing.
as long as he continued true to the principles of the Hanyfs, but to have quitted him in disgust at his subsequent proceedings, and to have died an orthodox Christian. It has been supposed that Muhammad derived many of his notions concerning Christianity from Gnosticism, and that it is to the numerous gnostic sects the Koran alludes when it reproaches the Christians with having "split up their religion into parties.…
After repeated author-commentary about Muhammad’s sincerity and alleged self-deception, the passage translates Sura CIX “Unbelievers” and Sura CXII “The Unity,” then adds polemical Meccan suras (especially about Abu Lahab and the rejection of prophetic claims).
after this prayer, Muhammad having been instructed, says the Sonna, to do so by the Angel Gabriel. 2 Islam 3 The following transfer of this Sura from the Arabic into the corresponding English characters may give some idea of the rhyming prose in which the Koran is written: Bismillahi 'rahhmani 'rrahheem. El-hamdoo lillahi rabi 'lalameen. Arrahhmani raheem. Maliki yowmi-d-deen. Eyaka naboodoo, wa‚yaka nest aeen. Ih…
The text argues that Muhammad’s message comes from sincere conviction rather than fraud, then shifts into Quranic themes: judgment, unity of God, disbelief’s consequences, and exhortations to faith and righteousness.
And they said, "Shall we believe on two men like ourselves, whose people are our slaves?" And they treated them both as impostors; wherefore they became of the destroyed. And we gave Moses the Book for Israel's guidance. And we appointed the Son of Mary, and His mother for a sign; and we prepared an abode for both in a lofty spot,8 quiet, and watered with springs. "O ye apostles! eat of things that are good: and …
The passage (Surah 25) praises sending al-Furkan, argues against partners and false gods, answers claims that the Quran is fraud, and threatens the deniers with Hell and resurrection.
When it shall see them from afar, they shall hear its raging and roaring,– And when they shall be flung into a narrow space thereof bound together, they shall invoke destruction on the spot: –"Call not this day for one destruction, but call for destructions many." SAY: Is this, or the Paradise of Eternity which was promised to the God- fearing, best? Their recompense shall it be and their retreat; Abiding therein…
The passage attacks idolatry by describing final judgement: believers are forgiven and enter Eden, while unbelievers face hellfire, including Pharaoh and his court, with moral lessons drawn from past prophets.
Thus is it that thy Lord's sentence, that inmates shall they be of the fire, was accomplished upon the infidels. They who bear the throne2 and they who encircle it, celebrate the praise of their Lord and believe in Him, and implore forgiveness for the believers:–"O our Lord! thou embracest all things in mercy and knowledge; forgive, therefore, those who turn to thee and follow thy path; keep them from the pains of h…
Rodwell’s translation argues that Muhammad’s mission arose from sincere desire to end Meccan idolatries, yet became Medina’s tyranny, with inspiration possibly reinforced by illness and self-deception, before shifting into Qur’anic monotheist warnings and eschatology.
subject of your disputes, with God doth its decision rest. This is God, my Lord: in Him do I put my trust, and to Him do I turn in penitence; Creator of the Heavens and of the Earth! he hath given you wives from among your own selves, and cattle male and female–by this means to multiply you: Nought is there like Him! the Hearer, the Beholder He! His, the keys of the Heavens and of the Earth! He giveth with open han…
In March 1775 Equiano embarks again for Cadiz, survives a Sunday shipwreck near the Bay of Cadiz, praises divine guidance, visits Gibraltar and Malaga, and disputes with Father Vincent about Catholic practice and Bible reading.
my passage lie, Yet Christ shall safely keep and guide me with his eye. How can I sink with such a prop, That bears the world and all things up?" At this time there were many large Spanish flukers or passage-vessels full of people crossing the channel; who seeing our condition, a number of them came alongside of us. As many hands as could be employed began to work; some at our three pumps, and the rest unloading the…
Defoe contrasts superstition’s spread with religious responses: he criticizes sermons that terrorize rather than comfort, and describes Restoration-era sect divisions briefly softened by the visitation.
but nothing was done in it, as I am informed, the Government being unwilling to exasperate the people, who were, as I may say, all out of their wits already. Neither can I acquit those ministers that in their sermons rather sank than lifted up the hearts of their hearers. Many of them no doubt did it for the strengthening the resolution of the people, and especially for quickening them to repentanc…
Paine concludes with a religious analogy that values diverse, non-tormenting devotion, criticizes doctrinal uniformity as implausible, praises the Bishop of Llandaff, and ends with a metaphor that political spring has begun across England.
the horrid practice of war, and break the chains of slavery and oppression is acceptable in his sight, and being the best service I can perform, I act it cheerfully. I do not believe that any two men, on what are called doctrinal points, think alike who think at all. It is only those who have not thought that appear to agree. It is in this case as with what is called the British constitution. It has been taken for g…
Linda describes her mother’s faith that slavery is God’s will, which she and her brother reject, then reflects on her master’s cruelty and William’s violent trouble with Master Nicholas.
feel that it was the will of God: that He had seen fit to place us under such circumstances; and though it seemed hard, we ought to pray for contentment. It was a beautiful faith, coming from a mother who could not call her children her own. But I, and Benjamin, her youngest boy, condemned it. We reasoned that it was much more the will of God that we should be situated as she was. We longed for a home like hers. The…
Linda describes her religious transformation in England, criticizing the communion practices she associated with Episcopalian racism, yet finding spiritual renewal through the clergyman’s household in Steventon.
management. The children were more rosy than American children, but I did not see that they differed materially in other respects. They were like all children—sometimes docile and sometimes wayward. We next went to Steventon, in Berkshire. It was a small town, said to be the poorest in the county. I saw men working in the fields for six shillings, and seven shillings, a week, and women for sixpence, and sevenpence, …
Julian’s argument and campaigns are outlined, including his consultations of omens, taking Constantinople after Constantius’s death, purging palace attendants, and turning toward pagan worship and religious disputes.
to announce the death of his kinsman; and to entreat him to lay aside all delay and hasten to take possession of the East, which was prepared to obey him. 5. But fame and an uncertain report whispered that Constantius had left a will, in which, as we have already mentioned, he had named Julian as his heir; and had given commissions and legacies to his friends. But he left his wife in the family way, who subsequently…
Durkheim states that “Church” refers to a group whose shared beliefs concern a more specialized circle of affairs.
[84] For the name Church is ordinarily applied only to a group whose common beliefs refer to a circle of more special affairs. [85] Hubert and Mauss, *loc. cit.*, p. 18. [86] Robertson Smith has already pointed out that magic is opposed to religion, as the individual to the social (_The Religion of the Semites_, 2 edit., pp. 264-265). Also, in thus distinguishing magic from religion, we do not mean to establish a b…
He argues that “dark and cloudy words” still enclose truth, points to prophets, Christ, and apostles using figurative speech, and invites critics to find in his work no worse than in others.
The prophets used much by metaphors To set forth truth; yea, who so considers Christ, his apostles too, shall plainly see, That truths to this day in such mantles be. Am I afraid to say, that holy writ, Which for its style and phrase puts down all wit, Is everywhere so full of all these things-- Dark figures, allegories? Yet there springs From that same book that lustre, and those rays Of light, that turn …
Christian and Hopeful speak with Ignorance, then encounter a man bound by seven devils and discover a paper labeling him a wanton professor and damnable apostate; they recount the robbery of Little-faith by thieves.
understanding, shall remain in the congregation of the dead." [Pro. 21:16] Then Christian and Hopeful looked upon one another, with tears gushing out, but yet said nothing to the Shepherds. {302} Then I saw in my dream, that the Shepherds had them to another place, in a bottom, where was a door in the side of a hill, and they opened the door, and bid them look in. They looked in, therefore, and saw that within it wa…
Christian and Hopeful follow a black-clothed man into a net that entangles them until a Shining One identifies him as Flatterer, tears the net, and warns them for failing to read directions.
Poor Little-faith! Hast been among the thieves? Wast robb'd? Remember this, whoso believes, And gets more faith, shall then a victor be Over ten thousand, else scarce over three. {328} So they went on and Ignorance followed. They went then till they came at a place where they saw a way put itself into their way, and seemed withal to lie as straight as the way which they should go: and here they knew not which of the…
Gibbon explains Diocletian’s policies toward Egypt after punishing past uprisings, including an edict to burn old alchemical books, which he treats as the first authentic persecution in the history of alchemy.
41 (return) [ After his defeat, Julian stabbed himself with a dagger, and immediately leaped into the flames. Victor in Epitome.] 42 (return) [ Tu ferocissimos Mauritaniæ populos inaccessis montium jugis et naturali munitione fidentes, expugnasti, recepisti, transtulisti. Panegyr Vet. vi. 8.] 43 (return) [ See the description of Alexandria, in Hirtius de Bel. Alexandrin c. 5.] 44 (return) [ Eutro…
Gibbon argues that while the orthodox church kept a middle course on Moses, heretics like Ebionites and Gnostics rejected Mosaic law in opposite ways, and he describes Gnostics’ criticisms of biblical morality, creation, and the character of the God of Israel.
had been practised by the most ancient Æthiopians, from motives of health and cleanliness, which seem to be explained in the Recherches Philosophiques sur les Americains, tom. ii. p. 117.] While the orthodox church preserved a just medium between excessive veneration and improper contempt for the law of Moses, the various heretics deviated into equal but opposite extremes of error and extravagance.…
Gibbon describes how Gnostics relied on allegory to defend Mosaic scripture despite claiming its literal sense contradicts faith and reason, and he lists how key fathers like Origen and Augustine employed allegorical readings.
261 (return) [ On the “war law” of the Jews, see Hist. of Jews, i. 137.—M.] 27 (return) [ Apud ipsos fides obstinata, misericordia in promptu: adversus amnes alios hostile odium. Tacit. Hist. v. 4. Surely Tacitus had seen the Jews with too favorable an eye. The perusal of Josephus must have destroyed the antithesis. * Note: Few writers have suspected Tacitus of partiality towards the Je…
Gibbon rejects the claim that early Christianity had no schism or heresy before Trajan or Hadrian, arguing instead that later tighter communion rules provoked dissent, and he portrays Gnosticism’s growth across Asia, Egypt, and Rome with many sects.
30 (return) [ See Beausobre, Hist. du Manicheisme, l. i. c. 4. Origen and St. Augustin were among the allegorists.] It has been remarked with more ingenuity than truth, that the virgin purity of the church was never violated by schism or heresy before the reign of Trajan or Hadrian, about one hundred years after the death of Christ. 31 We may observe with much more propriety, that, during tha…
Gibbon uses Paul of Samosata of Antioch as an example, portraying his wealth, venal ecclesiastical rule, pride, luxury, and doctrinal errors about the Trinity as provoking Eastern churches.
same opinion: Non intentatum modo, sed executum quoque brevissimo tempore mandatum, nobis infixum est in aniasis. Basn. Ann. 275, No. 2 and compare Pagi Ann. 272, Nos. 4, 12, 27—G.] The story of Paul of Samosata, who filled the metropolitan see of Antioch, while the East was in the hands of Odenathus and Zenobia, may serve to illustrate the condition and character of the times. The wealth of that p…
Eastern councils and bishops deposed Paul of Samosata through a large synod at Antioch without consulting clergy or people, and after Aurelian’s victory, rival factions argued heresy and schism before the conqueror.
Some nice and subtle errors, which he imprudently adopted and obstinately maintained, concerning the doctrine of the Trinity, excited the zeal and indignation of the Eastern churches. 129 From Egypt to the Euxine Sea, the bishops were in arms and in motion. Several councils were held, confutations were published, excommunications were pronounced, ambiguous explanations were by turns accepted and re…
Gibbon explains that no philosophy or the authority of Solomon and Jewish-Greek consent could establish the Christian doctrine without divine revelation, then summarizes Christ’s incarnation and how it was used to oppose Ebionite and Gnostic (Docetæ) heresies.
The eloquence of Plato, the name of Solomon, the authority of the school of Alexandria, and the consent of the Jews and Greeks, were insufficient to establish the truth of a mysterious doctrine, which might please, but could not satisfy, a rational mind. A prophet, or apostle, inspired by the Deity, can alone exercise a lawful dominion over the faith of mankind: and the theology of…
Continuing the description of the Docetæ, it claims they taught that Christ did not truly issue from the Virgin but appeared in human form on the Jordan, so Pilate’s soldiers persecuted an unreal phantom that only seemed to die and rise.
the ministers of Pilate had wasted their impotent rage on an ury phantom, who *seemed* to expire on the cross, and, after three days, to rise from the dead. 28 20 (return) [ The Platonists admired the beginning of the Gospel of St. John as containing an exact transcript of their own principles. Augustin de Civitat. Dei, x. 29. Amelius apud Cyril. advers. Julian. l. viii. p. 283. But in the third an…
The commentary note explains why the name “Docetæ” is applied broadly to Gnostic groups denying the real material body of Christ, discusses early and later usage of the term, and distinguishes it from a single distinct sect.
for rejecting the real humanity of Jesus Christ. See Ch. G. F. Walch, Hist. of Heresies in Germ. t. i. p. 217, sqq. Brucker, Hist. Crit. Phil. ii. p 639.—G.] 28 (return) [ Apostolis adhuc in sæculo superstitibus apud Judæam Christi sanguine recente, et *phantasma* corpus Domini asserebatur. Cotelerius thinks (Patres Apostol. tom. ii. p. 24) that those who will not allow the *Docetes* to have arisen…
Gibbon argues that Plato’s authority and the Gospel of John’s Logos concept were both contested in Alexandria, and he describes how metaphysical disputes about the Trinity and the Logos overwhelmed even thinkers like Athanasius.
See Ch. G. F. Walch, Hist. of Her. v. i. p. 283. Tillemont, Mempour servir a la Hist Eccles. ii. p. 50. Buddæus de Eccles. Apost. c. 5 & 7—G.] The divine sanction, which the Apostle had bestowed on the fundamental principle of the theology of Plato, encouraged the learned proselytes of the second and third centuries to admire and study the writings of the Athenian sage, who had thus marvellou…
It adds that the doctrinal authority of the church restrained “private judgment,” turning metaphysical argument into political faction, and recounts the Trinity controversy culminating in Arius’s dispute before Alexander and referral to the Council of Nicaea.
inquisitive critics have fairly allowed, that if they had the good fortune of possessing the Catholic verity, they have delivered their conceptions in loose, inaccurate, and sometimes contradictory language. 39 33 (return) [ In a treatise, which professed to explain the opinions of the ancient philosophers concerning the nature of the gods we might expect to discover the theological Trinity of Plat…
Gibbon describes three early theological systems about the Trinity—Arian, an “incommunicable” tri-substantialist view, and a Sabellian-style “trinity of names”—arguing each implies heresy or error.
for some time in secret; but there is reason to believe that they burst out with violence as early as the year 319. Tillemont, Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 774-780.] When the mysteries of the Christian faith were dangerously exposed to public debate, it might be observed, that the human understanding was capable of forming three district, though imperfect systems, concerning the nature of the Divine Tr…
Gibbon continues by contrasting Sabellians and Ebionites and then gives an extended footnote, leading into a discussion of how the Nicene council’s Homoousion shaped later Christian party lines.
the theological circle, we are surprised to find that the Sabellian ends where the Ebionite had begun; and that the incomprehensible mystery which excites our adoration, eludes our inquiry. 54 47 (return) [ Quid credidit? Certe, *aut* tria nomina audiens tres Deos esse credidit, et idololatra effectus est; *aut* in tribus vocabulis trinominem credens Deum, in Sabellii hæresim incurrit; *aut* edoctu…
Gibbon explains how the Homoousion and the “Catholic” triumph standardized faith language, yet Arian factional motives produced many competing creeds, exemplified by Hilary’s lament about continual theological reversals.
57 (return) [ See Bull, Defens. Fid. Nicen. sect. ii. c. i. p. 25-36. He thinks it his duty to reconcile two orthodox synods.] 58 (return) [ According to Aristotle, the stars were homoousian to each other. “That *Homoousios* means of one substance in *kind*, hath been shown by Petavius, Curcellæus, Cudworth, Le Clerc, &c., and to prove it would be *actum agere*.” This is the just remark of Dr…
Gibbon declines to detail the eighteen Arian creeds, but identifies a key question—whether the Son is “like” the Father—as splitting Arian-related sects into distinct branches and disputes over language.
i. p. 886-905,) has given an ample list of Arian creeds, which has been enlarged and improved by the labors of the indefatigable Tillemont, (Mém. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 477.)] 64 (return) [ Erasmus, with admirable sense and freedom, has delineated the just character of Hilary. To revise his text, to compose the annals of his life, and to justify his sentiments and conduct, is the province of the Bened…
It says that, despite Constantine’s protection of Arius and persecution of Athanasius, he still treated the Council of Nicaea as the foundation of Christian faith and a chief glory of his reign.
while he protected Arius, and persecuted Athanasius, he still considered the council of Nice as the bulwark of the Christian faith, and the peculiar glory of his own reign. 84 83 (return) [ We derive the original story from Athanasius, (tom. i. p. 670,) who expresses some reluctance to stigmatize the memory of the dead. He might exaggerate; but the perpetual commerce of Alexandria and Constantinopl…
Gibbon praises Athanasius as an enduring champion of Nicene Trinitarian doctrine, describing his career, repeated expulsions, long exiles, and rhetorical abilities during persecution against Arianism.
the orthodox clergy, whom it was impossible either to intimidate or to corrupt; and the reign of Constantius was disgraced by the unjust and ineffectual persecution of the great Athanasius. 91 (return) [ So curious a passage well deserves to be transcribed. Christianam religionem absolutam et simplicem, anili superstitione confundens; in qua scrutanda perplexius, quam componenda gravius excitaret d…
At Arles and especially Milan, Nicene opponents demand that Arian-leaning bishops “purge” themselves of suspected heresy before attacking Athanasius; the text frames these councils as factional contests over orthodoxy.
on every occasion, and particularly at Milan, that their adversaries should purge themselves from the suspicion of heresy, before they presumed to arraign the conduct of the great Athanasius. 127 123 (return) [ The affairs of the council of Milan are so imperfectly and erroneously related by the Greek writers, that we must rejoice in the supply of some letters of Eusebius, extracted by Baronius fro…
Gibbon begins his account of Julian’s religion as “apostasy,” claiming Christian and pagan biases distorted views, and sets out that the chapter will treat Julian’s motives and actions in the history of religion.
The Religion Of Julian.—Universal Toleration.—He Attempts To Restore And Reform The Pagan Worship—To Rebuild The Temple Of Jerusalem—His Artful Persecution Of The Christians.—Mutual Zeal And Injustice. The character of Apostate has injured the reputation of Julian; and the enthusiasm which clouded his virtues has exaggerated the real and apparent magnitude of his faults. Our partial ignora…
Gibbon describes how Jovian’s religious policy lets Christianity gain durable dominance after Julian, shuts or empties pagan temples, and preserves toleration by edict; he also summarizes Jovian’s alignment with the Nicene faction and the uneasy revival of church disputes.
and peaceful reign. Athanasius, had reason to hope, that he should be allowed either the merit of a successful prediction, or the excuse of a grateful though ineffectual prayer. 7 1 (return) [ The medals of Jovian adorn him with victories, laurel crowns, and prostrate captives. Ducange, Famil. Byzantin. p. 52. Flattery is a foolish suicide; she destroys herself with her own hands.] 2 (return) [ Jo…
Gibbon describes Constantinople as a center of Arianism, with clerical successions, religious controversy, and persecution of Nicenes under earlier emperors; after Valens’s death, Basil and Gregory Nazianzen lead a more organized orthodox congregation.
Constantinople was the principal seat and fortress of Arianism; and, in a long interval of forty years, 24 the faith of the princes and prelates, who reigned in the capital of the East, was rejected in the purer schools of Rome and Alexandria. The archiepiscopal throne of Macedonius, which had been polluted with so much Christian blood, was successively filled by Eudoxus and Damoph…
Gregory Nazianzen and Basil are praised for friendship and shared training in Athens and Pontus, but Basil’s promotion of Gregory to bishop of Sasima insults him; Gregory later serves in Constantinople at the church of Anastasia and faces Arians and a rival called Maximus.
an episcopal pastor. Two natives of Cappadocia, Basil, and Gregory Nazianzen, 27 were distinguished above all their contemporaries, 28 by the rare union of profane eloquence and of orthodox piety. These orators, who might sometimes be compared, by themselves, and by the public, to the most celebrated of the ancient Greeks, were united by the ties of the strictest friendship. They had cultivated, wi…
After completing his campaign, Theodosius enters Constantinople, forces the Arian Damophilus to accept the Nicene creed or lose churches, and installs Gregory Nazianzen under Imperial guard; in six weeks he expels Nicene dissenters with controlled, mostly bloodless measures.
36 (return) [ Lachrymae auditorum laudes tuae sint, is the lively and judicious advice of St. Jerom.] The Catholics of Constantinople were animated with joyful confidence by the baptism and edict of Theodosius; and they impatiently waited the effects of his gracious promise. Their hopes were speedily accomplished; and the emperor, as soon as he had finished the operations of the campaign, mad…
The text argues that orthodox Nicene theology, refined after debate over Christ, spreads successfully by extending doctrine to the Holy Spirit and by resolving schisms like Macedonians and approving Constantinople as a key council.
but the doctrine of the Nicene creed, most powerfully recommended by the merits of faith and devotion, was much better adapted to become popular and successful in a believing age. 37 (return) [ Socrates (l. v. c. 7) and Sozomen (l. vii. c. 5) relate the evangelical words and actions of Damophilus without a word of approbation. He considered, says Socrates, that it is difficult to resist the powerfu…
Gibbon says a 150-bishop synod at Constantinople ratifies Nicene doctrine, but he criticizes bishops’ motives and ordinations, describing the death of Meletius and the controversial ordination of Paulinus as fueling discord with secession and factional violence.
40 (return) [ I do not reckon Philostorgius, though he mentions (l. ix. c. 19) the explosion of Damophilus. The Eunomian historian has been carefully strained through an orthodox sieve.] The hope, that truth and wisdom would be found in the assemblies of the orthodox clergy, induced the emperor to convene, at Constantinople, a synod of one hundred and fifty bishops, who proceeded, without much diff…
During an Arian conflict in Milan, Justina urges Ambrose to surrender a church for Easter, but he refuses, leading to popular agitation, guarded basilicas for the imperial court, and Ambrose’s protection of threatened opponents.
50 (return) [ Sozomen, l. vii. c. 12.] The theory of persecution was established by Theodosius, whose justice and piety have been applauded by the saints: but the practice of it, in the fullest extent, was reserved for his rival and colleague, Maximus, the first, among the Christian princes, who shed the blood of his Christian subjects on account of their religious opinions. The cause o…
At Thessalonica Theodosius visits the imperial family, warns Justina on Nicene orthodoxy, debates war with his council, and—moved by Galla and Justina’s strategy—prepares eastern forces against Maximus.
72 (return) [ The modest censure of Sulpicius (Dialog. iii. 15) inflicts a much deeper wound than the declamation of Pacatus, (xii. 25, 26.)] 73 (return) [ Esto tutior adversus hominem, pacis involurco tegentem, was the wise caution of Ambrose (tom. ii. p. 891) after his return from his second embassy.] 74 (return) [ Baronius (A.D. 387, No. 63) applies to this season of public distress some of the…
Although Greeks praise Anthemius’s catholic piety and his charitable conversion of his palace, Gibbon notes tensions with toleration under Philotheus, papal censure of heresy, suspicion of pagan revival via Severus, and persistence of the Lupercalia into the Christian age until late in the fifth century.
empire in the two succeeding reigns of Zeno and Anastasius; but it ended in the destruction of those Barbarians, who maintained their fierce independences about two hundred and thirty years.] The virtues of Anthemius have perhaps been magnified, since the Imperial descent, which he could only deduce from the usurper Procopius, has been swelled into a line of emperors. 71 But the merit of his immedi…
Gibbon describes how Arian Christianity among Goths under Ulphilas created lasting religious hostility with orthodox Catholics, producing jealousy labeled as heresy and political conflict among Arian courts and Catholic bishops.
of the Christian republic, and gradually produced the similar manners, and common jurisprudence, which have distinguished, from the rest of mankind, the independent, and even hostile, nations of modern Europe. But the operation of these causes was checked and retarded by the unfortunate accident, which infused a deadly poison into the cup of Salvation. Whatever might be the early sentiments of Ulphilas, …
Gibbon shifts to critique orthodox theology, saying Catholic leaders’ superiority led them to frauds and forgeries in polemical works, including the alleged spurious 1 John 5:7 and later printing-era editing debates.
the bishop of Carthage; but the name of patriarch was given by the sects and nations to their principal ecclesiastic. See Thomassin, Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. p. 155, 158.] 108 (return) [ The patriarch Cyrila himself publicly declared, that he did not understand Latin (Victor, ii. 18, p. 42:) Nescio Latine; and he might converse with tolerable ease, without being capable of disputing or preac…
During the Ave Maria prayers at a cross on a sand-hill, Cortés has Bartolomé de Olmedo explain Christianity to Teuthlille and Quitlalpitoc, urging them to abandon idols, stop human sacrifice, and erect crosses and images of the Virgin.
elevated sand-hill. While we were all on our knees before it, and repeating the Ave Maria, Teuthlille and Quitlalpitoc inquired why we thus humbled ourselves so greatly before that pole. Cortes immediately turned to Bartolome de Olmedo, and remarked to him: "This is a good opportunity, father, to give these people some notion of our holy religion through our interpreters." This father Olmedo accordingly did in a man…
Cortés orders destroyed idols and demands Christian conversion, condemning human sacrifice and “unnatural crimes,” but receives resistance from Sempoalla chiefs; he has the new priests and altar prepared, and mass/baptism follows for seven named women.
after the fashion of the country: they wore beautiful shifts, had golden chains about their necks, golden rings in their ears, and had other Indian females to wait upon them. When the fat cazique presented these, he said to Cortes, "*Tecle*, (which signifies sir, in their language,) these seven women are intended for your chief officers, and this my niece, who herself holds dominion over a country and a people, I ha…