HKB
retrieves up to 250 passages, clusters them by period, and asks one strong model to reconcile them
89 passages kept of 191 candidates · 38 works · 440 BCE–1903 · 100% primary
Synthesis gpt-5.4-nano over 89 passages

Across periods, the clearest concrete “foods” come from sources that either (1) describe standardized bread in camp or (2) show deprivation and dependence on local supplies. Procopius, writing about soldiers’ camp subsistence, states that the bread “destined to eat in camp” had to be “put twice into the oven” and cooked to last; when distributed, soldiers received “one-fourth more than the usual weight” [23]. In the same 6th-century cluster, he also reports soldiers “beg[inning] to go about in disorderly fashion and eat gourds which grew there” [62]. For 1st-century BCE, Caesar remarks that his force, having “consumed all the corn far and near,” was in “very great distress” [2], showing campaign eating relied on corn supply. Later expedition narrative parallels this scarcity logic: when “having procured no game, they had nothing to eat” [25], and elsewhere there is a “scanty meal” with animals noted but not confirmed as eaten [50]. Other passages largely discuss discipline, pay, or encampment without naming foods [37,45].

Caveat. This set cannot establish a single, universal campaign ration or menu; it only shows intermittent, context-specific evidence (bread procedures, corn depletion, and occasional found foods).

The remaining sources do not state what soldiers ate on campaign. · 58 sources

These texts discuss discipline, morale, encampment behavior, or other matters without mentioning specific foods consumed.

“[Sidenote: Civic crown.] +39.+ A very excellent plan also is adopted for inducing young soldiers to brave danger.”
Polybius — The Histories of Polybius, Vol. 1 (of 2) · c. 160–118 BCE (composition of the Histories; later books/fragments extend beyond this span) · Megalopolis (Arcadia), Greece · primary [4]
“[Sidenote: Civic crown.] +39.+ A very excellent plan also is adopted for inducing young soldiers to brave danger. When an engagement has taken place and any of them have showed conspicuous gallantry, the Consul summons an assembly of the legion, puts forward those whom he considers to have distinguished themselves in any way, and first compliments each of them individually on his gallantry, and mentions any other distinction he may have earned in the course of his life, and then presents them with gifts: to the man who has wounded an enemy, a spear; to the man who has killed one and stripped his armour, a cup, if he be in the infantry, horse-trappings if in the cavalry: though originally the only present made was a spear.” BOOK I > BOOK VI (24/36) · passage 397 · cos 0.64
“[Sidenote: Minucius obtains a slight success. Autumn B.C.”
Polybius — The Histories of Polybius, Vol. 1 (of 2) · c. 160–118 BCE (composition of the Histories; later books/fragments extend beyond this span) · Megalopolis (Arcadia), Greece · primary [36]
“[Sidenote: Minucius obtains a slight success. Autumn B.C. 217.] +101.+ When Minucius took over the command from Fabius, he at first kept along the line of hills, feeling certain that he would sooner or later fall in with the Carthaginians; but when he heard that Hannibal had already taken Geronium, and was collecting the corn of the country, and had pitched his camp in front of the town, he changed the direction of his march, and descended from the top of the hills by way of a ridge leading down into the plains. Arriving at the height which lies in the territory of Larinum, and is called Calena, he encamped round its foot, being eager on any terms whatever to engage the enemy.” BOOK I > BOOK III (70/82) · passage 231 · cos 0.57
“[Sidenote: Encampment on the march.] +41.+ When the army on the march is approaching the place of encampment, a Tribune, and those of the centurions who have been from time to time selected for that duty, are sent forward to survey the place of encampment.”
Polybius — The Histories of Polybius, Vol. 1 (of 2) · c. 160–118 BCE (composition of the Histories; later books/fragments extend beyond this span) · Megalopolis (Arcadia), Greece · primary [41]
“[Sidenote: Encampment on the march.] +41.+ When the army on the march is approaching the place of encampment, a Tribune, and those of the centurions who have been from time to time selected for that duty, are sent forward to survey the place of encampment. Having done this they proceed first of all to fix upon the place for the Consul’s tent (as I have described above), and to determine on which side of the Praetorium to quarter the legions. Having decided these points they measure out the Praetorium, then they draw the straight line along which the tents of the Tribunes are to be pitched, and then the line parallel to this, beyond which the quarters of the legions are to begin. In the same way they draw the lines on the other sides of the Praetorium in accordance with the plan which I have already detailed at length.” BOOK I > BOOK VI (26/36) · passage 399 · cos 0.55
“Therefore it is that most of them, though in many instances their soldiers have fought nobly, by their own folly and imprudence in this respect have added dishonour to defeat: have disgraced their previous achievements, and rendered themselves, during the remainder of their lives, objects of reproach and contempt.”
Polybius — The Histories of Polybius, Vol. 2 (of 2) · 2nd century BCE (composition of the Histories); this volume contains Books X–XXXIX · Megalopolis, Achaea (Greece) · primary [55]
“Yet the former is obvious, the latter requires foresight. Therefore it is that most of them, though in many instances their soldiers have fought nobly, by their own folly and imprudence in this respect have added dishonour to defeat: have disgraced their previous achievements, and rendered themselves, during the remainder of their lives, objects of reproach and contempt. It is easy to see that many leaders make this fatal mistake, and that the difference between one man and another in these points is most signal; for history is full of such instances.” Chapter 59 in Book VI.: > BOOK XI (2/21) · passage 37 · cos 0.49
“Therefore it is that most of them, though in many instances their soldiers have fought nobly, by their own folly and imprudence in this respect have added dishonour to defeat: have disgraced their previous achievements, and rendered themselves, during the remainder of their lives, objects of reproach and contempt.”
Polybius — The Histories of Polybius, Vol. 2 (of 2) · 2nd century BCE (composition of the Histories); this volume contains Books X–XXXIX · Megalopolis, Achaea (Greece) · primary [55]
“Yet the former is obvious, the latter requires foresight. Therefore it is that most of them, though in many instances their soldiers have fought nobly, by their own folly and imprudence in this respect have added dishonour to defeat: have disgraced their previous achievements, and rendered themselves, during the remainder of their lives, objects of reproach and contempt. It is easy to see that many leaders make this fatal mistake, and that the difference between one man and another in these points is most signal; for history is full of such instances.” Chapter 59 in Book VI.: > BOOK XI (2/21) · passage 37 · cos 0.49
“Sextius faints, after receiving many wounds; he is with difficulty saved, drawn away by the hands of the soldiers. This space having intervened, the others resume courage, so far as to venture to take their place on the fortifications and present the aspect of defenders.”
Julius Caesar — "De Bello Gallico" and Other Commentaries · Commentaries composed during Caesar's Gallic campaigns (and later civil conflict), 58–52 BCE, with additional commentarial material through 49 BCE. · Gallia Comata (central Gaul, Roman campaign base territories) · primary [6]
“The centurions of that cohort which was on guard follow him; for a short time they sustain the fight together. Sextius faints, after receiving many wounds; he is with difficulty saved, drawn away by the hands of the soldiers. This space having intervened, the others resume courage, so far as to venture to take their place on the fortifications and present the aspect of defenders. XXXIX.--The foraging having in the meantime been completed, our soldiers distinctly hear the shout; the horse hasten on before and discover in what danger the affair is. But here there is no fortification to receive them, in their alarm: those last enlisted and unskilled in military discipline turn their faces to the military tribune and the centurions; they wait to find what orders may be given by them. No one is so courageous as not to be disconcerted by the suddenness of the affair.” C.W. Bateman, 1882. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, translated by T. Rice Holmes, London, 1908 (see also Holmes' Caesar's Conquest of > BOOK VI (17/18) · passage 119 · cos 0.59
“XXXVI.--Cicero, who during all the foregoing days had kept his soldiers in camp with the greatest exactness, and agreeably to the injunctions of Caesar, had not permitted even any of the camp-followers to go beyond the fortification, distrusting on the seventh day that Caesar would keep his promise as to the number of days, because he heard that he had proceeded farther, and no report as to his return was brought to him, and being urged at the same time by the expressions of those who called his”
Julius Caesar — "De Bello Gallico" and Other Commentaries · Commentaries composed during Caesar's Gallic campaigns (and later civil conflict), 58–52 BCE, with additional commentarial material through 49 BCE. · Gallia Comata (central Gaul, Roman campaign base territories) · primary [7]
“In three hours you can reach Aduatuca; there the Roman army has deposited all its fortunes; there is so little of a garrison that not even the wall can be manned, nor dare any one go beyond the fortifications." A hope having been presented them, the Germans leave in concealment the plunder they had acquired; they themselves hasten to Aduatuca, employing as their guide the same man by whose information they had become informed of these things.” C.W. Bateman, 1882. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, translated by T. Rice Holmes, London, 1908 (see also Holmes' Caesar's Conquest of > BOOK VI (16/18) · passage 118 · cos 0.59
“Frequently the encampment was at a distance of 30 stadia from the watering places, in order that the soldiers might not be induced by thirst to drink to excess. For many of them plunged into the water in their armour, and continued drinking until they were drowned; when swollen after death they floated, and corrupted the shallow water of the cisterns.”
Strabo — The Geography of Strabo, Volume 3 (of 3) · late 1st century BCE to early 1st century CE (composition of Strabo’s Geography; Volume 3 corresponds to books ca. VII–XVII) · Amasia (Amasya), Pontus · primary [45]
“It was necessary also, on account of the watering places, to make long marches of two, four, and sometimes even of six hundred stadia, for the most part during the night. Frequently the encampment was at a distance of 30 stadia from the watering places, in order that the soldiers might not be induced by thirst to drink to excess. For many of them plunged into the water in their armour, and continued drinking until they were drowned; when swollen after death they floated, and corrupted the shallow water of the cisterns. Others, exhausted by thirst, lay exposed to the sun, in the middle of the road. They then became tremulous, their hands and their feet shook, and they died like persons seized with cold and shivering.” BOOK XIV. > CHAPTER II. (2/6) · passage 87 · cos 0.50
“He determined, however, though the delay of the comitia had shortened his summer campaign, and though he knew his countrymen to be anxious for the result of his proceedings, not to commence operations, until, by a revival of the old discipline, he had brought the soldiers to bear fatigue.”
Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus) — Conspiracy of Catiline and the Jurgurthine War · c. 44-40 BCE · Rome · primary [19]
“The new general, accordingly, felt more anxiety from the corrupt morals of the men, than confidence or hope from their numbers. He determined, however, though the delay of the comitia had shortened his summer campaign, and though he knew his countrymen to be anxious for the result of his proceedings, not to commence operations, until, by a revival of the old discipline, he had brought the soldiers to bear fatigue. For Albinus, dispirited by the disaster of his brother Aulus and his army, and having resolved not to leave the province during the portion of the summer that he was to command, had kept the soldiers, for the most part, in a stationary camp[151], except when stench, or want of forage, obliged them to remove. But neither had the camp been fortified[152], nor the watches kept, according to military usage; every one had been allowed to leave his post when he pleased.” (89/151) · passage 88 · cos 0.53
“The town, however, was burned; of the Numidians, such as were of adult age, were put to the sword; the rest were sold, and the spoil divided among the soldiers.”
Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus) — Conspiracy of Catiline and the Jurgurthine War · c. 44-40 BCE · Rome · primary [32]
“When the inhabitants perceived that the place was surprised, their state of consternation and extreme dread, the suddenness of the calamity, and the consideration that many of their fellow-citizens were without the walls in the power of the enemy, compelled them to surrender. The town, however, was burned; of the Numidians, such as were of adult age, were put to the sword; the rest were sold, and the spoil divided among the soldiers. This severity, in violation of the usages of war, was not adopted from avarice or cruelty in the consul, but was exercised because the place was of great advantage to Jugurtha, and difficult of access to us, while the inhabitants were a fickle and faithless race, to be influenced neither by kindness nor by terror. XCII.” (116/151) · passage 115 · cos 0.51
“When I contemplate you, soldiers, and when I consider your past exploits, a strong hope of victory animates me. Your spirit, your age, your valor, give me confidence; to say nothing of necessity, which makes even cowards brave. To prevent the numbers of the enemy from surrounding us, our confined situation is sufficient.”
Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus) — Conspiracy of Catiline and the Jurgurthine War · c. 44-40 BCE · Rome · primary [39]
“In battle, those who are most afraid are always in most danger; but courage is equivalent to a rampart. When I contemplate you, soldiers, and when I consider your past exploits, a strong hope of victory animates me. Your spirit, your age, your valor, give me confidence; to say nothing of necessity, which makes even cowards brave. To prevent the numbers of the enemy from surrounding us, our confined situation is sufficient. But should Fortune be unjust to your valor, take care not to lose your lives unavenged; take care not to be taken and butchered like cattle, rather than fighting like men, to leave to your enemies a bloody and mournful victory." LIX. When he had thus spoken, he ordered, after a short delay, the signal for battle to be sounded, and led down his troops, in regular order, to the level ground.” (32/151) · passage 31 · cos 0.50
“"I am well aware, soldiers, that words can not inspire courage; and that a spiritless army can not be rendered active,[285] or a timid army valiant, by the speech of its commander.”
Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus) — Conspiracy of Catiline and the Jurgurthine War · c. 44-40 BCE · Rome · primary [43]
“Having, therefore, assembled his troops, he addressed them in the following manner: LVIII. "I am well aware, soldiers, that words can not inspire courage; and that a spiritless army can not be rendered active,[285] or a timid army valiant, by the speech of its commander. Whatever courage is in the heart of a man, whether from nature or from habit, so much will be shown by him in the field; and on him whom neither glory nor danger can move, exhortation is bestowed in vain; for the terror in his breast stops his ears. I have called you together, however, to give you a few instructions, and to explain to you, at the same time, my reasons for the course which I have adopted. You all know, soldiers, how severe a penalty the inactivity and cowardice of Lentulus has brought upon himself and us; and how, while waiting for reinforcements from the city, I was unable to march into Gaul.” (31/151) · passage 30 · cos 0.50
“Then he commanded all who were of military age to attend under arms, in the Campus Martius, before sunset, with dressed provisions for five days and twelve stakes apiece: those whose age rendered them unfit for active service were ordered to prepare victuals for the soldiers near them, while the latter were getting their arms ready, and procuring stakes.”
Titus Livius (Livy) — Roman History, Books I-III · c. 30–17 CE; composed over more than forty years (extant Books I–III are within this span) · Rome (tradition/compilation in Augustus’ orbit) · primary [42]
“With his master of the horse he entered the assembly, proclaimed a suspension of public business, ordered the shops to be closed throughout the city, and forbade any one to attend to any private affairs. Then he commanded all who were of military age to attend under arms, in the Campus Martius, before sunset, with dressed provisions for five days and twelve stakes apiece: those whose age rendered them unfit for active service were ordered to prepare victuals for the soldiers near them, while the latter were getting their arms ready, and procuring stakes. Accordingly, the young men ran in all directions to procure the stakes; they took them whatever was nearest to each: no one was prevented from doing so: all attended readily according to the dictator's order.” BOOK I > BOOK III (28/73) · passage 166 · cos 0.50
“The thousand soldiers from Antium were dismissed almost with disgrace, because they had come after the battle too late to render assistance.”
Titus Livius (Livy) — Roman History, Books I-III · c. 30–17 CE; composed over more than forty years (extant Books I–III are within this span) · Rome (tradition/compilation in Augustus’ orbit) · primary [51]
“After this the Latin and Hernican cohorts were sent back to their respective homes, after they had been thanked by the senate for their spirited conduct in war. The thousand soldiers from Antium were dismissed almost with disgrace, because they had come after the battle too late to render assistance.” BOOK I > BOOK III (5/73) · passage 143 · cos 0.49
“man who brought back the commons to the city, did not leave enough to bury him publicly. The people buried him by the contribution of a sextans [40] per man. Titus Geganius and Publius Minucius were next elected consuls.”
Titus Livius (Livy) — Roman History, Books I-III · c. 30–17 CE; composed over more than forty years (extant Books I–III are within this span) · Rome (tradition/compilation in Augustus’ orbit) · primary [60]
“man who brought back the commons to the city, did not leave enough to bury him publicly. The people buried him by the contribution of a sextans [40] per man. Titus Geganius and Publius Minucius were next elected consuls. In this year, when abroad there was complete rest from war, and at home dissensions were healed, another far more serious evil fell upon the state: first, dearness of provisions, a consequence of the lands lying untilled owing to the secession of the commons; then a famine, such as attacks those who are besieged.” BOOK I > BOOK II (34/66) · passage 106 · cos 0.50
“On the other hand, the consul and soldiers among the Æquans vied with each other in courtesy and acts of kindness: Quinctius was naturally milder in disposition, and the ill-fated severity of his colleague had caused him to give freer vent to his own good temper.”
Titus Livius (Livy) — Roman History, Books I-III · c. 30–17 CE; composed over more than forty years (extant Books I–III are within this span) · Rome (tradition/compilation in Augustus’ orbit) · primary [64]
“With respect to the rest of the rank and file, every tenth man was drawn by lot for punishment. On the other hand, the consul and soldiers among the Æquans vied with each other in courtesy and acts of kindness: Quinctius was naturally milder in disposition, and the ill-fated severity of his colleague had caused him to give freer vent to his own good temper. This remarkable agreement between the general and his army the Æquans did not venture to meet, but suffered the enemy to go through their country committing devastations in every direction. Nor were depredations committed more extensively in that quarter in any preceding war. The whole of the booty was given to the soldiers. In addition, they received praise, in which the minds of soldiers find no less pleasure than in rewards.” BOOK I > BOOK II (60/66) · passage 132 · cos 0.50
“Thus they pretend, but in the hollow side Selected numbers of their soldiers hide: With inward arms the dire machine they load, And iron bowels stuff the dark abode. In sight of Troy lies Tenedos, an isle (While Fortune did on Priam’s empire smile) Renown’d for wealth; but, since, a faithless bay, Where ships expos’d to wind and weather lay. There was their fleet conceal’d.”
Virgil — The Aeneid · c. 29–19 BCE · Mantua (region) · primary [76]
““By destiny compell’d, and in despair, The Greeks grew weary of the tedious war, And by Minerva’s aid a fabric rear’d, Which like a steed of monstrous height appear’d: The sides were plank’d with pine; they feign’d it made For their return, and this the vow they paid. Thus they pretend, but in the hollow side Selected numbers of their soldiers hide: With inward arms the dire machine they load, And iron bowels stuff the dark abode. In sight of Troy lies Tenedos, an isle (While Fortune did on Priam’s empire smile) Renown’d for wealth; but, since, a faithless bay, Where ships expos’d to wind and weather lay. There was their fleet conceal’d. We thought, for Greece Their sails were hoisted, and our fears release.” BOOK I > BOOK II · passage 16
“Arm’d soldiers now by trembling maids are seen, With not a door, and scarce a space, between. The house is fill’d with loud laments and cries, And shrieks of women rend the vaulted skies; The fearful matrons run from place to place, And kiss the thresholds, and the posts embrace.”
Virgil — The Aeneid · c. 29–19 BCE · Mantua (region) · primary [77]
“A mighty breach is made: the rooms conceal’d Appear, and all the palace is reveal’d; The halls of audience, and of public state, And where the lonely queen in secret sate. Arm’d soldiers now by trembling maids are seen, With not a door, and scarce a space, between. The house is fill’d with loud laments and cries, And shrieks of women rend the vaulted skies; The fearful matrons run from place to place, And kiss the thresholds, and the posts embrace. The fatal work inhuman Pyrrhus plies, And all his father sparkles in his eyes; Nor bars, nor fighting guards, his force sustain: The bars are broken, and the guards are slain. In rush the Greeks, and all the apartments fill; Those few defendants whom they find, they kill.” BOOK I > Part on the pile their wond’ring eyes employ: (10/16) · passage 26
“Some were wonderfully well pleased with this order; others blamed it as unsociable and ungenteel, and were of the opinion that, as soon as I was out of my office, the manner of entertainments ought to be reformed; for, says Hagias, we invite one another not barely to eat and drink, but to eat and drink together.”
Plutarch — Complete Works of Plutarch — Volume 3: Essays and Miscellanies · c. AD 1–120 (composed across the early Imperial period; exact dates vary by essay) · Chaeronea · primary [33]
“When I was chief magistrate, most of the suppers consisted of distinct messes, where every particular guest had his portion of the sacrifice allowed him. Some were wonderfully well pleased with this order; others blamed it as unsociable and ungenteel, and were of the opinion that, as soon as I was out of my office, the manner of entertainments ought to be reformed; for, says Hagias, we invite one another not barely to eat and drink, but to eat and drink together. Now this division into messes takes away all society, makes many suppers, and many eaters, but no one sups with another; but every man takes his pound of beef, as from the meat shop, sets it before himself, and falls on.” BOOK I. > BOOK II. (16/17) · passage 159 · cos 0.51
“The Lusitanians are reported to be clever in laying ambushes, sharp, swift of foot, light,[1145] and easily disciplined as soldiers. The small shield they make use of is two feet in diameter, its outer surface concave, and suspended by leather thongs; it neither has rings nor handles. They have in addition[1146] a poignard or dagger.”
Strabo — The Geography of Strabo, Volume 1 (of 3) · c. 20 CE (Books I–VI likely composed/available by this period) · Achaea/Greco-Roman Greek world (Strabo’s scholarly base) · primary [29]
“6. The Lusitanians are reported to be clever in laying ambushes, sharp, swift of foot, light,[1145] and easily disciplined as soldiers. The small shield they make use of is two feet in diameter, its outer surface concave, and suspended by leather thongs; it neither has rings nor handles. They have in addition[1146] a poignard or dagger. Their corselets are for the most part made of linen; a few have chain-coats and helmets with triple crests, but the others use helmets composed of sinews. The infantry wear greaves, each man is furnished with a number of javelins; some also use spears pointed with brass. They report that some of those who dwell near to the river Douro[1147] imitate the Lacedæmonians in anointing their bodies with oil, using hot air-baths made of heated stones, bathing in cold water, and taking but one tidy and frugal meal a day.” BOOK I. > CHAPTER III. (3/4) · passage 129 · cos 0.52
“This great miscarriage in the opening of the campaign much discouraged Antony's army, and Artavasdes, king of Armenia, deciding that the Roman prospects were bad, withdrew with all his forces from the camp, although he had been the chief promoter of the war.”
Plutarch — Plutarch: Lives of the noble Grecians and Romans · c. 100 CE (composed over time) · Chaeronea (birthplace/Greek mainland background) · primary [1]
“horse, by which Statianus was surprised, he himself and ten thousand of his men slain, the engines all broken in pieces, many taken prisoners, and, among the rest, king Polemon. This great miscarriage in the opening of the campaign much discouraged Antony's army, and Artavasdes, king of Armenia, deciding that the Roman prospects were bad, withdrew with all his forces from the camp, although he had been the chief promoter of the war. The Parthians, encouraged by their success, came up to the Romans at the siege, and gave them many affronts; upon which Antony, fearing that the despondency and alarm of his soldiers would only grow worse if he let them lie idle, taking all the horse, ten legions, and three praetorian cohorts of heavy infantry, resolved to go out and forage, designing by this means to draw the enemy with more advantage to a battle.” (1299/1424) · passage 1298 · cos 0.58
“that if to balance the great favors he had received of them any judgment lay in store, they would pour it upon his head alone, and grant his soldiers victory.”
Plutarch — Plutarch: Lives of the noble Grecians and Romans · c. 100 CE (composed over time) · Chaeronea (birthplace/Greek mainland background) · primary [5]
“that if to balance the great favors he had received of them any judgment lay in store, they would pour it upon his head alone, and grant his soldiers victory. The next day they took better order for their march, and the Parthians, who thought they were marching rather to plunder than to fight, were much taken aback, when they came up and were received with a shower of missiles, to find the enemy not disheartened, but fresh and resolute. So that they themselves began to lose courage. But at the descent of a hill where the Romans were obliged to pass, they got together, and let fly their arrows upon them as they moved slowly down.” (1304/1424) · passage 1303 · cos 0.63
“But he said it was not usual for Caesar's soldiers to take, but give mercy, and having said so, fell upon his sword and killed himself.”
Plutarch — Plutarch: Lives of the noble Grecians and Romans · c. 100 CE (composed over time) · Chaeronea (birthplace/Greek mainland background) · primary [10]
“the quaestor his life. But he said it was not usual for Caesar's soldiers to take, but give mercy, and having said so, fell upon his sword and killed himself. This love of honor and passion for distinction were inspired into them and cherished in them by Caesar himself, who, by his unsparing distribution of money and honors, showed them that he did not heap up wealth from the wars for his own luxury, or the gratifying his private pleasures, but that all he received was but a public fund laid by for the reward and encouragement of valor, and that he looked upon all he gave to deserving soldiers as so much increase to his own riches. Added to this, also, there was no danger to which he did not willingly expose himself, no labor from which he pleaded all exemption. His contempt of danger was not so much wondered at by his soldiers, because they knew how much he coveted honor.” (992/1424) · passage 991 · cos 0.57
“those who pressed forwards. At last, taking Eumenes in his arms, and keeping off the crowd with his guards, not without great difficulty, he returned him safe into the fort.”
Plutarch — Plutarch: Lives of the noble Grecians and Romans · c. 100 CE (composed over time) · Chaeronea (birthplace/Greek mainland background) · primary [14]
“those who pressed forwards. At last, taking Eumenes in his arms, and keeping off the crowd with his guards, not without great difficulty, he returned him safe into the fort. Then Antigonus, having built a wall round Nora, left a force sufficient to carry on the siege, and drew off the rest of his army; and Eumenes was beleaguered and kept garrison, having plenty of corn and water and salt but no other thing, either for food, or delicacy; yet with such as he had, he kept a cheerful table for his friends, inviting them severally in their turns, and seasoning his entertainment with a gentle and affable behavior. For he had a pleasant countenance, and looked not like an old and practiced soldier, but was smooth and florid, and his shape as delicate as if his limbs had been carved by art in the most accurate proportions.” (802/1424) · passage 801 · cos 0.60
“But in succeeding ages, beside several other circumstances that moved the Athenians to honor Theseus as a demigod, in the battle which was fought at Marathon against the Medes, many of the soldiers believed they saw an apparition of Theseus in arms, rushing on at the head of them against the barbarians.”
Plutarch — Plutarch: Lives of the noble Grecians and Romans · c. 100 CE (composed over time) · Chaeronea (birthplace/Greek mainland background) · primary [89]
“His sons were brought up in a private condition, and accompanied Elephenor to the Trojan war, but, after the decease of Menestheus in that expedition, returned to Athens, and recovered the government. But in succeeding ages, beside several other circumstances that moved the Athenians to honor Theseus as a demigod, in the battle which was fought at Marathon against the Medes, many of the soldiers believed they saw an apparition of Theseus in arms, rushing on at the head of them against the barbarians. And after the Median war, Phaedo being archon of Athens, the Athenians, consulting the oracle at Delphi, were commanded to gather together the bones of Theseus, and, laying them in some honorable place, keep them as sacred in the city.” (24/1424) · passage 23
“Whilst Agricola was yet speaking, the ardor of the soldiers declared itself; and as soon as he had finished, they burst forth into cheerful acclamations, and instantly flew to arms. Thus eager and impetuous, he formed them so that the centre was occupied by the auxiliary infantry, in number eight thousand, and three thousand horse were spread in the wings.”
Cornelius Tacitus — The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus · c. 98 CE (Germany and Agricola; Agricola probably shortly after Domitian’s death, 96 CE) · Rome · primary [17]
“fifty years [118] with one great day; and convince your country-men, that to the army ought not to be imputed either the protraction of war, or the causes of rebellion." 35. Whilst Agricola was yet speaking, the ardor of the soldiers declared itself; and as soon as he had finished, they burst forth into cheerful acclamations, and instantly flew to arms. Thus eager and impetuous, he formed them so that the centre was occupied by the auxiliary infantry, in number eight thousand, and three thousand horse were spread in the wings. The legions were stationed in the rear, before the intrenchments; a disposition which would render the victory signally glorious, if it were obtained without the expense of Roman blood; and would ensure support if the rest of the army were repulsed.” (41/88) · passage 40 · cos 0.55
“The soldiers, inspirited by the steadfastness which characterized and the fame which attended this victory, cried out that "nothing could resist their valor; now was the time to penetrate into the heart of Caledonia, and in a continued series of engagements at length to discover the utmost limits of Britain." Those even who had before recommended caution and prudence, were now rendered rash and boastful by success.”
Cornelius Tacitus — The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus · c. 98 CE (Germany and Agricola; Agricola probably shortly after Domitian’s death, 96 CE) · Rome · primary [22]
“27. The soldiers, inspirited by the steadfastness which characterized and the fame which attended this victory, cried out that "nothing could resist their valor; now was the time to penetrate into the heart of Caledonia, and in a continued series of engagements at length to discover the utmost limits of Britain." Those even who had before recommended caution and prudence, were now rendered rash and boastful by success. It is the hard condition of military command, that a share in prosperous events is claimed by all, but misfortunes are imputed to one alone.” (37/88) · passage 36 · cos 0.54
“And now the several divisions were in motion, the glittering of arms was beheld, while the most daring and impetuous were hurrying to the front, and the line of battle was forming; when Agricola, although his soldiers were in high spirits, and scarcely to be kept within their intrenchments, kindled additional ardor by these words:-- "It is now the eighth year, my fellow-soldiers, in which, under the high auspices of the Roman empire, by your valor and perseverance you have been conquering Brita”
Cornelius Tacitus — The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus · c. 98 CE (Germany and Agricola; Agricola probably shortly after Domitian’s death, 96 CE) · Rome · primary [24]
“They received this harangue with alacrity, and testified their applause after the barbarian manner, with songs, and yells, and dissonant shouts. And now the several divisions were in motion, the glittering of arms was beheld, while the most daring and impetuous were hurrying to the front, and the line of battle was forming; when Agricola, although his soldiers were in high spirits, and scarcely to be kept within their intrenchments, kindled additional ardor by these words:-- "It is now the eighth year, my fellow-soldiers, in which, under the high auspices of the Roman empire, by your valor and perseverance you have been conquering Britain.” (40/88) · passage 39 · cos 0.53
“the bodies of the horses; and frequently, straggling chariots, and affrighted horses without their riders, flying variously as terror impelled them, rushed obliquely athwart or directly through the lines. [122] 37.”
Cornelius Tacitus — The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus · c. 98 CE (Germany and Agricola; Agricola probably shortly after Domitian’s death, 96 CE) · Rome · primary [34]
“the bodies of the horses; and frequently, straggling chariots, and affrighted horses without their riders, flying variously as terror impelled them, rushed obliquely athwart or directly through the lines. [122] 37. Those of the Britons who, yet disengaged from the fight, sat on the summits of the hills, and looked with careless contempt on the smallness of our numbers, now began gradually to descend; and would have fallen on the rear of the conquering troops, had not Agricola, apprehending this very event, opposed four reserved squadron of horse to their attack, which, the more furiously they had advanced, drove them back with the greater celerity. Their project was thus turned against themselves; and the squadrons were ordered to wheel from the front of the battle and fall upon the enemy's rear.” (42/88) · passage 41 · cos 0.53
“surpasses in the number and magnanimity of his followers. For such are courted by Embassies, and distinguished with presents, and by the terror of their fame alone often dissipate wars. In the day of battle, it is scandalous to the Prince to be surpassed in feats of bravery, scandalous to his followers to fail in matching the bravery of the Prince.”
Cornelius Tacitus — Tacitus on Germany · c. 98 CE (early in the reign of Trajan) · Rome · primary [40]
“surpasses in the number and magnanimity of his followers. For such are courted by Embassies, and distinguished with presents, and by the terror of their fame alone often dissipate wars. In the day of battle, it is scandalous to the Prince to be surpassed in feats of bravery, scandalous to his followers to fail in matching the bravery of the Prince. But it is infamy during life, and indelible reproach, to return alive from a battle where their Prince was slain. To preserve their Prince, to defend him, and to ascribe to his glory all their own valorous deeds, is the sum and most sacred part of their oath. The Princes fight for victory; for the Prince his followers fight. Many of the young nobility, when their own community comes to languish in its vigour by long peace and inactivity, betake themselves through impatience in other States which then prove to be in war.” (8/22) · passage 7 · cos 0.52
“and two horses. Silver too is what they seek more than gold, from no fondness or preference, but because small pieces are more ready in purchasing things cheap and common. Neither in truth do they abound in iron, as from the fashion of their weapons may be gathered. Swords they rarely use, or the larger spear.”
Cornelius Tacitus — Tacitus on Germany · c. 98 CE (early in the reign of Trajan) · Rome · primary [68]
“and two horses. Silver too is what they seek more than gold, from no fondness or preference, but because small pieces are more ready in purchasing things cheap and common. Neither in truth do they abound in iron, as from the fashion of their weapons may be gathered. Swords they rarely use, or the larger spear. They carry javelins or, in their own language, *framms*, pointed with a piece of iron short and narrow, but so sharp and manageable, that with the same weapon they can fight at a distance or hand to hand, just as need requires. Nay, the horsemen also are content with a shield and a javelin. The foot throw likewise weapons missive, each particular is armed with many, and hurls them a mighty space, all naked or only wearing a light cassock. In their equipment they show no ostentation; only that their shields are diversified and adorned with curious colours.” (4/22) · passage 3 · cos 0.52
“no certain possessor: afterwards it became a skirt of the Empire and part of a province, upon the enlargement of our bounds and the extending of our garrisons and frontier.”
Cornelius Tacitus — Tacitus on Germany · c. 98 CE (early in the reign of Trajan) · Rome · primary [69]
“no certain possessor: afterwards it became a skirt of the Empire and part of a province, upon the enlargement of our bounds and the extending of our garrisons and frontier. Beyond these are the Cattans, whose territories begin at the Hercynian Forest, and consist not of such wide and marshy plains, as those of the other communities contained within the vast compass of Germany; but produce ranges of hills, such as run lofty and contiguous for a long tract, then by degrees sink and decay. Moreover the Hercynian Forest attends for a while its native Cattans, then suddenly forsakes them. This people are distinguished with bodies more hardy and robust, compact limbs, stern countenances, and greater vigour of spirit. For Germans, they are men of much sense and address.” (15/22) · passage 14 · cos 0.49
“And because of this all secretly mocked him, both officers and soldiers, but not a man reproached him to his face. Finally the Persians made their bivouac on the bank of the Euphrates just opposite the city of Callinicus.”
Procopius of Caesarea — History of the Wars, Books I and II: The Persian War · c. 545–555 CE (composition of History of the Wars, Books I–II, covering the Persian war material) · Constantinople · primary [56]
“betaking themselves to their own land without accomplishing anything. And because of this all secretly mocked him, both officers and soldiers, but not a man reproached him to his face. Finally the Persians made their bivouac on the bank of the Euphrates just opposite the city of Callinicus. From there they were about to march through a country absolutely uninhabited by man, and thus to quit the land of the Romans; for they purposed no longer to proceed as before, keeping to the bank of the river. The Romans had passed the night in the city of Sura, and, removing from there, they came upon the enemy just in the act of preparing for the departure. [Ap.” BOOK I.--THE PERSIAN WAR 1 > BOOK I (50/70) · passage 54 · cos 0.49
“I must not, however, omit to mention the manner in which Justinian treated the soldiers. He appointed commissioners, called Logothetae,[17] with directions to squeeze as much money as they could out of them, a twelfth part of the sum thus obtained being assured to them. The following was their mode of operation every year. It was an established custom that the soldiers should not all have the same pay.”
Procopius — The Secret History of the Court of Justinian · 549-562 (composed under Justinian; period covered by the work) · Constantinople (Byzantium), Eastern Roman Empire · primary [47]
“I must not, however, omit to mention the manner in which Justinian treated the soldiers. He appointed commissioners, called Logothetae,[17] with directions to squeeze as much money as they could out of them, a twelfth part of the sum thus obtained being assured to them. The following was their mode of operation every year. It was an established custom that the soldiers should not all have the same pay. Those who were young, and had just joined, received less than those who had undergone hardships in the field and were already half-way up the list; while the veterans, whose term of service was all but over, received a more considerable sum, that they might have sufficient to live upon as private individuals, and, after their death, might be able to leave a small inheritance by way of consolation to their families.” CHAPTER I > CHAPTER XXIV (1/2) · passage 77 · cos 0.50
“For the soldiers, being extremely poor men, upon becoming all of a sudden masters of very great wealth and of women both young and extremely comely, were no longer able to restrain their minds or to find any satiety in the things they had, but were so intoxicated, drenched as they were by their present good fortunes, that each one wished to take everything with him back to Carthage.”
Procopius of Caesarea — History of the Wars, Books III and IV: The Vandalic War · c. 550s CE (composition of History of the Wars) · Caesarea Maritima (Roman/Byzantine Syria Palaestina) · primary [52]
“And if this thing had happened at that time in any way at all, I believe that, not one of the Romans would have escaped and enjoyed this booty. For the soldiers, being extremely poor men, upon becoming all of a sudden masters of very great wealth and of women both young and extremely comely, were no longer able to restrain their minds or to find any satiety in the things they had, but were so intoxicated, drenched as they were by their present good fortunes, that each one wished to take everything with him back to Carthage. And they were going about, not in companies but alone or by twos, wherever hope led them, searching out everything roundabout among the valleys and the rough country and wherever there chanced to be a cave or anything such as might bring them into danger or ambush.” BOOK III.--THE VANDALIC WAR 1 > BOOK IV (8/67) · passage 64 · cos 0.49
“it is accustomed to make those who have been injured indulgent; and service which comes in season is wont to bring another name to those who have been called ungrateful. "And it will be needful for you to know well this also, that if at the present time you shew yourselves completely loyal to the emperor, no remembrance will remain of what has gone before.”
Procopius of Caesarea — History of the Wars, Books III and IV: The Vandalic War · c. 550s CE (composition of History of the Wars) · Caesarea Maritima (Roman/Byzantine Syria Palaestina) · primary [54]
“it is accustomed to make those who have been injured indulgent; and service which comes in season is wont to bring another name to those who have been called ungrateful. "And it will be needful for you to know well this also, that if at the present time you shew yourselves completely loyal to the emperor, no remembrance will remain of what has gone before. For in the nature of things every course of action is characterized by men in accordance with its final outcome; and while a wrong which has once been committed can never be undone in all time, still, when it has been corrected by better deeds on the part of those who committed it, it receives the fitting reward of silence and generally comes to be forgotten.” BOOK III.--THE VANDALIC WAR 1 > BOOK IV (44/67) · passage 100 · cos 0.51
“But it is right to remind you of this fact, that the soldiers said openly a little earlier that they feared the dangers by sea and would turn to flight if a hostile ship should attack them, and we prayed God to shew us the land of Libya and allow us a peaceful disembarkation upon it.”
Procopius of Caesarea — History of the Wars, Books III and IV: The Vandalic War · c. 550s CE (composition of History of the Wars) · Caesarea Maritima (Roman/Byzantine Syria Palaestina) · primary [66]
“For I have heard what seems best to each one of you, and it is becoming that I too should lay before you what I think, and then with you should choose the better course. But it is right to remind you of this fact, that the soldiers said openly a little earlier that they feared the dangers by sea and would turn to flight if a hostile ship should attack them, and we prayed God to shew us the land of Libya and allow us a peaceful disembarkation upon it. And since this is so, I think it the part of foolish men first to pray to receive from God the more favourable fortune, then when this is given them, to reject it and go in the contrary direction.” BOOK III.--THE VANDALIC WAR 1 (35/55) · passage 35 · cos 0.49
“Although on our approach the inhabitants immediately took up arms, we sought to gain their friendship by kind words and presents of glass beads, begging of them to accompany us to Malinche and take him something to eat. These people were then not aware that Cortes was advancing with so large a body of foot and horse, and showed little inclination to return with us.”
Bernal Díaz del Castillo — The Memoirs of the Conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Vol 2 (of 2) · c. 1568–1570 (composition of the memoirs) · Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (probable), written or composed in New Spain/Spanish empire · primary [21]
“We were, therefore, obliged to continue our route in the best way we could without the help of guides, and it was only with the greatest difficulty we found our way through the morasses to the first of the Acallan townships. Although on our approach the inhabitants immediately took up arms, we sought to gain their friendship by kind words and presents of glass beads, begging of them to accompany us to Malinche and take him something to eat. These people were then not aware that Cortes was advancing with so large a body of foot and horse, and showed little inclination to return with us. It was not until the following day, when they learnt from some Indian merchants what a large army Malinche had with him, that they evinced greater willingness to supply him with provisions.” CHAPTER CXXXVII. > CHAPTER CLXXVI. (2/4) · passage 211 · cos 0.57
“On this last march, Cortes' buffoon and three soldiers, who had recently arrived from Spain, died from exhaustion. A great number of Mechoacan and Mexican Indians likewise perished, and many others, who were unable to bear the fatigues, became ill, and in despair sank down on the ground as we marched along.”
Bernal Díaz del Castillo — The Memoirs of the Conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Vol 2 (of 2) · c. 1568–1570 (composition of the memoirs) · Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (probable), written or composed in New Spain/Spanish empire · primary [26]
“Here our horses likewise regained their strength, and we offered up our humble thanks to God for so much mercy. On this last march, Cortes' buffoon and three soldiers, who had recently arrived from Spain, died from exhaustion. A great number of Mechoacan and Mexican Indians likewise perished, and many others, who were unable to bear the fatigues, became ill, and in despair sank down on the ground as we marched along. As this township was quite deserted by its inhabitants, and we had no guides left, Cortes despatched myself and another captain among the mountains in search of other small villages.” CHAPTER CXXXVII. > CHAPTER CLXXV. (5/6) · passage 208 · cos 0.52
“owners of the horses were very unwilling to risk them in such unequal conflict; for at that time the ordinary price of a horse was from 800 to 1000 pesos. When night came on, and released us from the attacks of the enemy, we returned to our encampment, and attended to our wounds, which we dressed with bandages steeped in oil.”
Bernal Díaz del Castillo — The Memoirs of the Conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Vol 2 (of 2) · c. 1568–1570 (composition of the memoirs) · Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (probable), written or composed in New Spain/Spanish empire · primary [30]
“owners of the horses were very unwilling to risk them in such unequal conflict; for at that time the ordinary price of a horse was from 800 to 1000 pesos. When night came on, and released us from the attacks of the enemy, we returned to our encampment, and attended to our wounds, which we dressed with bandages steeped in oil. There was likewise a soldier among our troops, named Juan Catalan, who charmed the wounds, and the Lord Jesus blessed this man's exertions in a manner that he invariably succeeded in his cures. Indeed, if all our wounded, each day we renewed the attack, had remained behind in our camp, none of the companies could ever have sallied out with more than twenty men at a time.” CHAPTER CXXXVII. > CHAPTER CLI. (2/12) · passage 59 · cos 0.53
“When we entered the town, the streets and balconies could scarcely contain the numbers of men and women who had come out to see us: delight was depicted on every countenance, and twenty baskets full of roses were brought us, of various colours and sweetly scented, which were presented to Cortes and the other soldiers whom they considered officers, and particularly to those who sat on horseback.”
Bernal Díaz del Castillo — The Memoirs of the Conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Vol 1 (of 2) · 1568 · Guatemala City (Santiago de Guatemala/Guatimala) · primary [71]
“The principal personages now gathered themselves around Cortes' person, and formed a guard of honour. When we entered the town, the streets and balconies could scarcely contain the numbers of men and women who had come out to see us: delight was depicted on every countenance, and twenty baskets full of roses were brought us, of various colours and sweetly scented, which were presented to Cortes and the other soldiers whom they considered officers, and particularly to those who sat on horseback. In this way we gradually arrived to some spacious courtyards, where quarters had been prepared for us. Here Xicotencatl the elder and Maxixcatzin took Cortes by the hand and conducted him into his apartments. For each of us there was a separate bed, filled with a species of dried grass, and covered with cloaks of nequen.” CHAPTER I. > CHAPTER LXXV. · passage 149 · cos 0.47
“For soldiers, I find the generals commonly in their hortatives, put men in mind of their wives and children; and I think the despising of marriage amongst the Turks, maketh the vulgar soldier more base.”
Francis Bacon — The Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral · c. 1597–1612 (main composition/expansion of the Essays) · London, England (historical core of Tudor/early Stuart political life) · primary [86]
“It is indifferent for judges and magistrates; for if they be facile and corrupt, you shall have a servant, five times worse than a wife. For soldiers, I find the generals commonly in their hortatives, put men in mind of their wives and children; and I think the despising of marriage amongst the Turks, maketh the vulgar soldier more base. Certainly wife and children are a kind of discipline of humanity; and single men, though they may be many times more charitable, because their means are less exhaust, yet, on the other side, they are more cruel and hardhearted (good to make severe inquisitors), because their tenderness is not so oft called upon. Grave natures, led by custom, and therefore constant, are commonly loving husbands, as was said of Ulysses, vetulam suam praetulit immortalitati. Chaste women are often proud and froward, as presuming upon the merit of their chastity.” (13/99) · passage 12
“The causes and motives of seditions are, innovation in religion; taxes; alteration of laws and customs; breaking of privileges; general oppression; advancement of unworthy persons; strangers; dearths; disbanded soldiers; factions grown desperate; and what soever, in offending people, joineth and knitteth them in a common cause.”
Francis Bacon — The Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral · c. 1597–1612 (main composition/expansion of the Essays) · London, England (historical core of Tudor/early Stuart political life) · primary [87]
“Neither let any prince, or state, be secure concerning discontentments, because they have been often, or have been long, and yet no peril hath ensued: for as it is true, that every vapor or fume doth not turn into a storm; so it is nevertheless true, that storms, though they blow over divers times, yet may fall at last; and, as the Spanish proverb noteth well, The cord breaketh at the last by the weakest pull. The causes and motives of seditions are, innovation in religion; taxes; alteration of laws and customs; breaking of privileges; general oppression; advancement of unworthy persons; strangers; dearths; disbanded soldiers; factions grown desperate; and what soever, in offending people, joineth and knitteth them in a common cause.” (23/99) · passage 22
“Galba undid himself by that speech, legi a se militem, non emi; for it put the soldiers out of hope of the donative. Probus likewise, by that speech, Si vixero, non opus erit amplius Romano imperio militibus; a speech of great despair for the soldiers. And many the like.”
Francis Bacon — The Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral · c. 1597–1612 (main composition/expansion of the Essays) · London, England (historical core of Tudor/early Stuart political life) · primary [88]
“Caesar did himself infinite hurt in that speech, Sylla nescivit literas, non potuit dictare; for it did utterly cut off that hope, which men had entertained, that he would at one time or other give over his dictatorship. Galba undid himself by that speech, legi a se militem, non emi; for it put the soldiers out of hope of the donative. Probus likewise, by that speech, Si vixero, non opus erit amplius Romano imperio militibus; a speech of great despair for the soldiers. And many the like. Surely princes had need, in tender matters and ticklish times, to beware what they say; especially in these short speeches, which fly abroad like darts, and are thought to be shot out of their secret intentions. For as for large discourses, they are flat things, and not so much noted.” (25/99) · passage 24
“desired by him, when I took my leave of him, upon going to Melinda, to inform myself where his relation was buried, and to send him some of his relics. The viceroy, son-in-law to the Emperor, with whom I was joined in the commission, gave me many distinguishing proofs of his affection to me, and of his zeal for the Catholic religion.”
Jerónimo Lobo — A Voyage to Abyssinia · 1620s–1660s (composition of Lobo’s account of his Abyssinian mission); includes material used in a later French translation (1728) · Goa · primary [53]
“desired by him, when I took my leave of him, upon going to Melinda, to inform myself where his relation was buried, and to send him some of his relics. The viceroy, son-in-law to the Emperor, with whom I was joined in the commission, gave me many distinguishing proofs of his affection to me, and of his zeal for the Catholic religion. It was a journey of fifteen days through part of the country possessed by the Galles, which made it necessary to take troops with us for our security; yet, notwithstanding this precaution, the hazard of the expedition appeared so great, that our friends bid us farewell with tears, and looked upon us as destined to unavoidable destruction. The viceroy had given orders to some troops to join us on the road, so that our little army grew stronger as we advanced.” PART I--THE VOYAGE TO ABYSSINIA > CHAPTER VI (2/2) · passage 42 · cos 0.51
“By the legal voice of the people in Congress; by a military power; or by a mob: It may not always happen that our soldiers are citizens, and the multitude a body of reasonable men; virtue, as I have already remarked, is not hereditary, neither is it perpetual.”
Thomas Paine — Common Sense · 1776-02-14 · Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (then British America) · primary [75]
“We ought to reflect, that there are three different ways, by which an independancy may hereafter be effected; and that one of those three, will one day or other, be the fate of America, viz. By the legal voice of the people in Congress; by a military power; or by a mob: It may not always happen that our soldiers are citizens, and the multitude a body of reasonable men; virtue, as I have already remarked, is not hereditary, neither is it perpetual. Should an independancy be brought about by the first of those means, we have every opportunity and every encouragement before us, to form the noblest purest constitution on the face of the earth. We have it in our power to begin the world over again. A situation, similar to the present, hath not happened since the days of Noah until now.” (32/38) · passage 31
“To the People of the State of New York: Assuming it therefore as an established truth that the several States, in case of disunion, or such combinations of them as might happen to be formed out of the wreck of the general Confederacy, would be subject to those vicissitudes of peace and war, of friendship and enmity, with each other, which have fallen to the lot of all neighboring nations not united under one government, let us enter into a concise detail of some of the consequences that would a”
Alexander Hamilton; John Jay; James Madison — The Federalist Papers · 1787-10-1788-08 · New York City, New York, United States · primary [57]
“To the People of the State of New York: Assuming it therefore as an established truth that the several States, in case of disunion, or such combinations of them as might happen to be formed out of the wreck of the general Confederacy, would be subject to those vicissitudes of peace and war, of friendship and enmity, with each other, which have fallen to the lot of all neighboring nations not united under one government, let us enter into a concise detail of some of the consequences that would attend such a situation. War between the States, in the first period of their separate existence, would be accompanied with much greater distresses than it commonly is in those countries where regular military establishments have long obtained.” (25/342) · passage 23
“The industrious habits of the people of the present day, absorbed in the pursuits of gain, and devoted to the improvements of agriculture and commerce, are incompatible with the condition of a nation of soldiers, which was the true condition of the people of those republics.”
Alexander Hamilton; John Jay; James Madison — The Federalist Papers · 1787-10-1788-08 · New York City, New York, United States · primary [59]
“Different answers, equally satisfactory, may be given to this question. The industrious habits of the people of the present day, absorbed in the pursuits of gain, and devoted to the improvements of agriculture and commerce, are incompatible with the condition of a nation of soldiers, which was the true condition of the people of those republics. The means of revenue, which have been so greatly multiplied by the increase of gold and silver and of the arts of industry, and the science of finance, which is the offspring of modern times, concurring with the habits of nations, have produced an entire revolution in the system of war, and have rendered disciplined armies, distinct from the body of the citizens, the inseparable companions of frequent hostility.” (26/342) · passage 24
“A few ships of the line, sent opportunely to the reinforcement of either side, would often be sufficient to decide the fate of a campaign, on the event of which interests of the greatest magnitude were suspended. Our position is, in this respect, a most commanding one.”
Alexander Hamilton; John Jay; James Madison — The Federalist Papers · 1787-10-1788-08 · New York City, New York, United States · primary [61]
“This would be more peculiarly the case in relation to operations in the West Indies. A few ships of the line, sent opportunely to the reinforcement of either side, would often be sufficient to decide the fate of a campaign, on the event of which interests of the greatest magnitude were suspended. Our position is, in this respect, a most commanding one. And if to this consideration we add that of the usefulness of supplies from this country, in the prosecution of military operations in the West Indies, it will readily be perceived that a situation so favorable would enable us to bargain with great advantage for commercial privileges. A price would be set not only upon our friendship, but upon our neutrality.” (39/342) · passage 37
“visible effect on our health. The men are growing weak and losing their flesh very fast: several are afflicted with the dysentery, and eruptions of the skin are very common. Friday 20. Captain Clarke went on through a country as rugged as usual, till on passing a low mountain he came at the distance of four miles to the forks of a large creek.”
Meriwether Lewis — History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol. 1. · 1804-1806 (narrative materials compiled from journals; edited for press by Paul Allen for 1814 publication) · United States (pre-expedition in the eastern U.S.; manuscript compilation and preparation for press in Philadelphia) · primary [44]
“visible effect on our health. The men are growing weak and losing their flesh very fast: several are afflicted with the dysentery, and eruptions of the skin are very common. Friday 20. Captain Clarke went on through a country as rugged as usual, till on passing a low mountain he came at the distance of four miles to the forks of a large creek. Down this he kept on a course south 60 degrees west for two miles, then turning to the right, continued over a dividing ridge where were the heads of several little streams, and at twelve miles distance descended the last of the rocky mountains and reached the level country. A beautiful open plain partially supplied with pine now presented itself. He continued for five miles when he discovered three Indian boys, who, on observing the party, ran off and hid themselves in the grass.” CHAPTER I. > CHAPTER XVII. (14/25) · passage 327 · cos 0.52
“together he made a long harangue, and in about an hour and a half returned, and told captain Lewis that they would be ready to accompany him in the morning. As the early part of the day was cold, and the men stiff and sore from the fatigues of yesterday: we did not set out till seven o'clock.”
Meriwether Lewis — History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol. 1. · 1804-1806 (narrative materials compiled from journals; edited for press by Paul Allen for 1814 publication) · United States (pre-expedition in the eastern U.S.; manuscript compilation and preparation for press in Philadelphia) · primary [48]
“together he made a long harangue, and in about an hour and a half returned, and told captain Lewis that they would be ready to accompany him in the morning. As the early part of the day was cold, and the men stiff and sore from the fatigues of yesterday: we did not set out till seven o'clock. At the distance of a mile we passed a bold stream on the right, which comes from a snowy mountain to the north, and at its entrance is four yards wide, and three feet in depth: we called it Track creek: at six miles further we reached another stream which heads in some springs at the foot of the mountains on the left. Alter passing a number of bayous and small islands on each side, we encamped about half a mile by land below the Rattlesnake cliffs.” CHAPTER I. > CHAPTER XIV. (10/15) · passage 273 · cos 0.51
“They demand such a reconstruction as shall put an end to the present anarchical state of things in the late rebellious States,—where frightful murders and wholesale massacres are perpetrated in the very presence of Federal soldiers. This horrible business they require shall cease.”
Frederick Douglass — Collected Articles of Frederick Douglass · 1881 · Baltimore, Maryland · primary [73]
“The people are less concerned about these than the grand end to be attained. They demand such a reconstruction as shall put an end to the present anarchical state of things in the late rebellious States,—where frightful murders and wholesale massacres are perpetrated in the very presence of Federal soldiers. This horrible business they require shall cease. They want a reconstruction such as will protect loyal men, black and white, in their persons and property; such a one as will cause Northern industry, Northern capital, and Northern civilization to flow into the South, and make a man from New England as much at home in Carolina as elsewhere in the Republic. No Chinese wall can now be tolerated. The South must be opened to the light of law and liberty, and this session of Congress is relied upon to accomplish this important work.” (16/16) · passage 15
“A promise was given by the Government that during the progress of the work a suitable force of soldiers should be quartered close at hand to protect the builder and his workmen. [Image] Inversnaid Fort.”
James Nasmyth — James Nasmyth, Engineer: An Autobiography · 1883-1885 (composition of the autobiographical recollections; published in 1885) · London, England · primary [82]
“It was intended to guard the Lowlands, and keep Rob Roy and his caterans within the Highland Border. A promise was given by the Government that during the progress of the work a suitable force of soldiers should be quartered close at hand to protect the builder and his workmen. [Image] Inversnaid Fort. After a drawing by Alexander Nasmyth Notwithstanding many whispered warnings as to the danger of undertaking such a hazardous work, Michael Naesmyth and his men encamped upon the spot, though without the protection of the Government force. Having erected a temporary residence for their accommodation, he proceeded with the building of the fort. The work was well advanced by the end of 1703, although the Government had treated all Naesmyth's appeals for protection with evasion or contempt.” CHAPTER 1 My Ancestry (4/8) · passage 16
“But Rob Roy again surprised the small party of soldiers who were in charge. They were disarmed and sent about their business. Finally, the fort was rebuilt, and placed under the command of Captain (afterwards General) Wolfe. When peace fell upon the Highlands and Rob Roy's country became the scene of picnics, the fort was abandoned and allowed to go to ruin.”
James Nasmyth — James Nasmyth, Engineer: An Autobiography · 1883-1885 (composition of the autobiographical recollections; published in 1885) · London, England · primary [83]
“Another attempt was made to build the fort at Inversnaid. But Rob Roy again surprised the small party of soldiers who were in charge. They were disarmed and sent about their business. Finally, the fort was rebuilt, and placed under the command of Captain (afterwards General) Wolfe. When peace fell upon the Highlands and Rob Roy's country became the scene of picnics, the fort was abandoned and allowed to go to ruin. Poor Michael never recovered from the cold which he caught during his forced retreat from Inversnaid. The effects of this, together with the loss and distress of mind which he experienced from the Government's refusal to pay for his work--notwithstanding their promise to protect him and his workmen from the Highland freebooters--so preyed upon his mind that he was never again able to devote himself to business.” CHAPTER 1 My Ancestry (5/8) · passage 17
“1822, my father, who was then at the head of his profession in Scotland, was appointed chairman at the dinner held to do honour to the great Scottish portrait painter. Raeburn often joined my father in his afternoon walks round Edinburgh --a relaxation so very desirable after hours of close attention to artistic work. They took delight in the wonderful variety of picturesque scenery by which the city is surrounded.”
James Nasmyth — James Nasmyth, Engineer: An Autobiography · 1883-1885 (composition of the autobiographical recollections; published in 1885) · London, England · primary [84]
“1822, my father, who was then at the head of his profession in Scotland, was appointed chairman at the dinner held to do honour to the great Scottish portrait painter. Raeburn often joined my father in his afternoon walks round Edinburgh --a relaxation so very desirable after hours of close attention to artistic work. They took delight in the wonderful variety of picturesque scenery by which the city is surrounded. The walks about Arthur's Seat were the most enjoyable of all. When a boy I had often the pleasure of accompanying them, and of listening to their conversation. I thus picked up many an idea that served me well in after life. Indeed, I may say, after a long experience, that there is no class of men whose company I more delight in than that of artists.” CHAPTER 1 My Ancestry > CHAPTER 3. An Artist's Family. (2/8) · passage 38
“I remember how odd it appeared to me to see some well-known faces and figures metamorphosed into soldiers It was considered a test of loyalty as well as of patriotism, to give time, money, and leisure to take up the arms of defence, and to practise daily in military uniform in the Meadows or on Bruntsfield Links.”
James Nasmyth — James Nasmyth, Engineer: An Autobiography · 1883-1885 (composition of the autobiographical recollections; published in 1885) · London, England · primary [85]
“The volunteering which went on at the time gave quite a military aspect to the city. I remember how odd it appeared to me to see some well-known faces and figures metamorphosed into soldiers It was considered a test of loyalty as well as of patriotism, to give time, money, and leisure to take up the arms of defence, and to practise daily in military uniform in the Meadows or on Bruntsfield Links. Windows were thrown up to hear the bands playing at the head of the troops, and crowds of boys, full of military ardour, went, as usual, hand to hand in front of the drums and fifes. The most interesting part of the procession to my mind was the pioneers in front, with their leather aprons, their axes and saws, and their big hairy caps and beards. They were to me so suggestive of clearing the way through hedges and forests, and of what war was in its actual progress.” CHAPTER 1 My Ancestry > CHAPTER 4. My Early Years. (3/8) · passage 47
“Yes, makin' mock o' uniforms that guard you while you sleep Is cheaper than them uniforms, an' they're starvation cheap; An' hustlin' drunken soldiers when they're goin' large a bit Is five times better business than paradin' in full kit.”
Rudyard Kipling — Verses 1889-1896 · 1889-1896 · England (United Kingdom) · primary [78]
“For it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' “Tommy, wait outside”; But it's “Special train for Atkins” when the trooper's on the tide, The troopship's on the tide, my boys, the troopship's on the tide, O it's “Special train for Atkins” when the trooper's on the tide. Yes, makin' mock o' uniforms that guard you while you sleep Is cheaper than them uniforms, an' they're starvation cheap; An' hustlin' drunken soldiers when they're goin' large a bit Is five times better business than paradin' in full kit. Then it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' “Tommy, 'ow's yer soul?” But it's “Thin red line of 'eroes” when the drums begin to roll, The drums begin to roll, my boys, the drums begin to roll, O it's “Thin red line of 'eroes” when the drums begin to roll.” (4/87) · passage 3
“Payments to Negro soldiers were at first complicated by the ignorance of the recipients, and the fact that the quotas of colored regiments from Northern States were largely filled by recruits from the South, unknown to their fellow soldiers. Consequently, payments were accompanied by such frauds that Congress, by joint resolution in 1867, put the whole matter in the hands of the Freedmen’s Bureau.”
W. E. B. Du Bois (William Edward Burghardt Du Bois) — The Souls of Black Folk · 1903 · Atlanta, Georgia, United States (author’s location at inscription) · primary [81]
“The chief initial source of this was labor in the army, and his pay and bounty as a soldier. Payments to Negro soldiers were at first complicated by the ignorance of the recipients, and the fact that the quotas of colored regiments from Northern States were largely filled by recruits from the South, unknown to their fellow soldiers. Consequently, payments were accompanied by such frauds that Congress, by joint resolution in 1867, put the whole matter in the hands of the Freedmen’s Bureau. In two years six million dollars was thus distributed to five thousand claimants, and in the end the sum exceeded eight million dollars. Even in this system fraud was frequent; but still the work put needed capital in the hands of practical paupers, and some, at least, was well spent.” (16/130) · passage 15

Soldiers sometimes ate what they could find locally during the campaign, including gourds and (in expedition context) whatever game/edibles could be obtained. · 5 sources

Here the emphasis is on immediate, found/available foods during movement or disorder, not on formal ration systems.

“So Belisarius gave this warning; but Peter and his men disregarded his commands, and about midday, being distressed by the sun (for the place is exceedingly dry and hot), they stacked their arms, and with never a thought of the enemy began to go about in disorderly fashion and eat gourds which grew there. And when this was observed by Nabedes, he led the Persian army running at full speed against them.”
Procopius of Caesarea — History of the Wars, Books I and II: The Persian War · c. 545–555 CE (composition of History of the Wars, Books I–II, covering the Persian war material) · Constantinople · primary [62]
“But Belisarius marshalled the men who were with him as if for combat, and sent word to Peter and his men also to hold themselves in array for battle, until he himself should give the signal; and he said that he knew well that the barbarians would attack them about midday, remembering, as they surely would, that while they themselves are accustomed to partake of food in the late afternoon, the Romans do so about midday. So Belisarius gave this warning; but Peter and his men disregarded his commands, and about midday, being distressed by the sun (for the place is exceedingly dry and hot), they stacked their arms, and with never a thought of the enemy began to go about in disorderly fashion and eat gourds which grew there. And when this was observed by Nabedes, he led the Persian army running at full speed against them.” BOOK I.--THE PERSIAN WAR 1 > Book VI. xxx. 30. (43/81) · passage 124 · cos 0.50
“they would shortly get something to eat, if at least the Indians did not kill me, as they had the four other Spaniards he had despatched in search of provisions.”
Bernal Díaz del Castillo — The Memoirs of the Conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Vol 2 (of 2) · c. 1568–1570 (composition of the memoirs) · Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (probable), written or composed in New Spain/Spanish empire · primary [20]
“they would shortly get something to eat, if at least the Indians did not kill me, as they had the four other Spaniards he had despatched in search of provisions. As I was thus approaching the camp in the dark, the whole of our troops suddenly fell upon the provisions like ravenous wolves, and took entire possession of them, nor did they leave the smallest quantity, either for Cortes, Sandoval, or the other superior officers. "This is for Cortes!" cried they each time they forcibly carried off a load of provisions.” CHAPTER CXXXVII. > CHAPTER CLXXVI. (3/4) · passage 212 · cos 0.54
“As we were quite fatigued and hungry we returned to our quarters, buried the two soldiers, one of whom had been shot in the neck and the other in the ear, posted strong watches, then ate our supper and retired to rest.”
Bernal Díaz del Castillo — The Memoirs of the Conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Vol 1 (of 2) · 1568 · Guatemala City (Santiago de Guatemala/Guatimala) · primary [65]
“There were two caziques among the five prisoners we made. As we were quite fatigued and hungry we returned to our quarters, buried the two soldiers, one of whom had been shot in the neck and the other in the ear, posted strong watches, then ate our supper and retired to rest.” CHAPTER I. > CHAPTER XXXIV. (2/3) · passage 69 · cos 0.47
“He halted an hour to let the horses eat a little grass on the hill sides, and then went on twelve and a half miles till he reached a bold creek, running to the left, on which he encamped. To this stream he gave the very appropriate name of Hungry creek; for having procured no game, they had nothing to eat.”
Meriwether Lewis — History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol. 1. · 1804-1806 (narrative materials compiled from journals; edited for press by Paul Allen for 1814 publication) · United States (pre-expedition in the eastern U.S.; manuscript compilation and preparation for press in Philadelphia) · primary [25]
“85 degrees W., along the same high dividing ridge, and the road was still very bad; but he moved on rapidly, and at the distance of twenty miles was rejoiced on discovering far off an extensive plain towards the west and southwest, bounded by a high mountain. He halted an hour to let the horses eat a little grass on the hill sides, and then went on twelve and a half miles till he reached a bold creek, running to the left, on which he encamped. To this stream he gave the very appropriate name of Hungry creek; for having procured no game, they had nothing to eat. In the meantime we were detained till after eight o'clock by the loss of one of our horses which had strayed away and could not be found.” CHAPTER I. > CHAPTER XVII. (12/25) · passage 325 · cos 0.54
“scanty meal. The only animals they had seen were a few pigeons, some very wild hares, a great number of the large black grasshopper, and a quantify of ground lizards. Tuesday 27. The men, who were engaged last night in mending their moccasins, all except one, went out hunting, but no game was to be procured.”
Meriwether Lewis — History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol. 1. · 1804-1806 (narrative materials compiled from journals; edited for press by Paul Allen for 1814 publication) · United States (pre-expedition in the eastern U.S.; manuscript compilation and preparation for press in Philadelphia) · primary [50]
“scanty meal. The only animals they had seen were a few pigeons, some very wild hares, a great number of the large black grasshopper, and a quantify of ground lizards. Tuesday 27. The men, who were engaged last night in mending their moccasins, all except one, went out hunting, but no game was to be procured. One of the men however killed a small salmon, and the Indians made a present of another, on which the whole party made a very slight breakfast. These Indians, to whom this life is familiar, seem contented, although they depend for subsistence on the scanty productions of the fishery.” CHAPTER I. > CHAPTER XV. (15/15) · passage 293 · cos 0.51

Soldiers’ campaign eating depended on local grain/corn supplies, which could be fully consumed before new supplies arrived. · 2 sources

The sources in this group treat food as a logistics problem solvable (or unsolvable) by access to local corn; they emphasize deprivation when supplies run out rather than naming a broader ration.

“the cases of the Romans, the Quaestor stops out of their pay the price of their corn and clothes, or any additional arms they may require at a fixed rate. +40.+ The following is their manner of moving camp. At the first bugle the men all strike their tents and collect their baggage; but no soldier may strike his tent, or set it up either, till the same is done to that of the Tribuni and the Consul.”
Polybius — The Histories of Polybius, Vol. 1 (of 2) · c. 160–118 BCE (composition of the Histories; later books/fragments extend beyond this span) · Megalopolis (Arcadia), Greece · primary [37]
“the cases of the Romans, the Quaestor stops out of their pay the price of their corn and clothes, or any additional arms they may require at a fixed rate. +40.+ The following is their manner of moving camp. At the first bugle the men all strike their tents and collect their baggage; but no soldier may strike his tent, or set it up either, till the same is done to that of the Tribuni and the Consul. At the second bugle they load the beasts of burden with their baggage: at the third the first maniples must advance and set the whole camp in motion. Generally speaking, the men appointed to make this start are the *extraordinarii*: next comes the right wing of the socii; and behind them their beasts of burden.” BOOK I > BOOK VI (25/36) · passage 398 · cos 0.56
“Whereas, Caesar, having consumed all the corn far and near, was in very great distress, but his soldiers bore all with uncommon patience. For they remembered that they lay under the same difficulties last year in Spain, and yet by labour and patience had concluded a dangerous war.”
Julius Caesar — "De Bello Gallico" and Other Commentaries · Commentaries composed during Caesar's Gallic campaigns (and later civil conflict), 58–52 BCE, with additional commentarial material through 49 BCE. · Gallia Comata (central Gaul, Roman campaign base territories) · primary [2]
“For there arrived every day a prodigious number of ships, which brought them provisions: nor could the wind blow from any point that would not be favourable to some of them. Whereas, Caesar, having consumed all the corn far and near, was in very great distress, but his soldiers bore all with uncommon patience. For they remembered that they lay under the same difficulties last year in Spain, and yet by labour and patience had concluded a dangerous war. They recollected too that they had suffered an alarming scarcity at Alesia, and a much greater at Avaricum, and yet had returned victorious over mighty nations. They refused neither barley nor pulse when offered them, and they held in great esteem cattle, of which they got great quantities from Epirus. XLVIII.--There was a sort of root, called chara, discovered by the troops which served under Valerius.” C.W. Bateman, 1882. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, translated by T. Rice Holmes, London, 1908 (see also Holmes' Caesar's Conquest of > BOOK III (19/44) · passage 250 · cos 0.69

Soldiers on campaign ate standardized bread prepared to keep longer, with adjustments to delivered weight. · 1 sources

These passages focus on the technical preparation and distribution of bread in camp, describing procedures and quantitative adjustments rather than episodic foraging.

“The bread which soldiers are destined to eat in camp must of necessity be put twice into the oven, and be cooked so carefully as to last for a very long period and not spoil in a short time, and loaves cooked in this way necessarily weigh less; and for this reason, when such bread is distributed, the soldiers generally received as their portion one-fourth more than the usual weight.[43] John, therefore, calculating how he might reduce the amount of firewood used and have less to pay to the baker”
Procopius of Caesarea — History of the Wars, Books III and IV: The Vandalic War · c. 550s CE (composition of History of the Wars) · Caesarea Maritima (Roman/Byzantine Syria Palaestina) · primary [23]
“But this has been said in the preceding pages, when I was brought to this point by my narrative.[42] But I shall tell in the present case in what manner he destroyed the soldiers.” BOOK III.--THE VANDALIC WAR 1 (31/55) · passage 31 · cos 0.53

not directly relevant · 24 sources

Not grouped by the model.

“The soldiers accordingly, so long as they were able to get anything from the ground, prolonged their lives by eating grass; but when they came to the sand, some did a fearful deed, that is to say, out of each company of ten they selected by lot one of themselves and devoured him: and Cambyses, when he heard it, being alarmed by this eating of one another gave up the expedition against the Ethiopians and set forth to go back again; and he arrived at Thebes having suffered loss of a great number o”
Herodotus — The History of Herodotus — Volume 1 · c. 440–430 BCE (composition of Histories; Volume I corresponds to Book I, “Clio”) · Halicarnassus · primary [31]
“Now if Cambyses when he perceived this had changed his plan and led his army back, he would have been a wise man in spite of 22 his first mistake; as it was, however, he paid no regard, but went on forward without stopping. The soldiers accordingly, so long as they were able to get anything from the ground, prolonged their lives by eating grass; but when they came to the sand, some did a fearful deed, that is to say, out of each company of ten they selected by lot one of themselves and devoured him: and Cambyses, when he heard it, being alarmed by this eating of one another gave up the expedition against the Ethiopians and set forth to go back again; and he arrived at Thebes having suffered loss of a great number of his army. Then from Thebes he came down to Memphis and allowed the Hellenes to sail away home.” BOOK I. THE FIRST BOOK OF THE HISTORIES, CALLED CLIO > BOOK III. THE THIRD BOOK OF THE HISTORIES, CALLED THALEIA (11/68) · passage 180 · cos 0.51
“In this spirit he often enjoined upon his soldiers to guard their captives as fellow-men rather than take vengeance upon them as evildoers; (10) or, on a change of quarters, if aware of little children left behind by the dealers (since the men often sold them in the belief that it would be impossible to carry them away and rear them), he would show concern in behalf of these poor waifs and have them conveyed to some place of safety; or he would entrust them to the care of fellow-prisoners also ”
Xenophon — Agesilaus · c. 360 BCE · Scillus or Corinth, Greece · primary [70]
“So with infinite pains he set himself not merely to crush his foes by force, but also to win them to his side by gentleness. In this spirit he often enjoined upon his soldiers to guard their captives as fellow-men rather than take vengeance upon them as evildoers; (10) or, on a change of quarters, if aware of little children left behind by the dealers (since the men often sold them in the belief that it would be impossible to carry them away and rear them), he would show concern in behalf of these poor waifs and have them conveyed to some place of safety; or he would entrust them to the care of fellow-prisoners also left behind on account of old age; in no case must they be left to ravening dogs and wolves. In this way he won the goodwill not only of those who heard tell of these doings but of the prisoners themselves.” (4/25) · passage 3 · cos 0.49
“4:6 Likewise for those that are no soldiers, and have not to do with wars, but use husbundry, when they have reaped again that which they had sown, they bring it to the king, and compel one another to pay tribute unto the king.”
Anonymous — Deuterocanonical Books of the Bible · c. 300 BCE–100 CE · Jerusalem · primary [74]
“4:5 They slay and are slain, and transgress not the king’s commandment: if they get the victory, they bring all to the king, as well the spoil, as all things else. 4:6 Likewise for those that are no soldiers, and have not to do with wars, but use husbundry, when they have reaped again that which they had sown, they bring it to the king, and compel one another to pay tribute unto the king. 4:7 And yet he is but one man: if he command to kill, they kill; if he command to spare, they spare; 4:8 If he command to smite, they smite; if he command to make desolate, they make desolate; if he command to build, they build; 4:9 If he command to cut down, they cut down; if he command to plant, they plant.” (6/231) · passage 5
“This being concluded, the signal was given to stop the slaughter: whereupon the soldiers left off slaying, and turned to plunder.”
Polybius — The Histories of Polybius, Vol. 2 (of 2) · 2nd century BCE (composition of the Histories); this volume contains Books X–XXXIX · Megalopolis, Achaea (Greece) · primary [27]
“When he arrived there, Mago at first thought of resistance; but afterwards, when he was satisfied that the city was completely in the power of the enemy, he sent to demand a promise of his life, and then surrendered. This being concluded, the signal was given to stop the slaughter: whereupon the soldiers left off slaying, and turned to plunder. When night fell those of the soldiers to whom this duty had been assigned remained in the camp, while Scipio with his thousand men bivouacked in the citadel; and summoning the rest from the dwelling-houses by means of the Tribunes, he ordered them to collect all their booty into the market-place by maniples, and to take up their quarters for the night by these several heaps. He then summoned the light-armed from the camp, and stationed them upon the eastern hill. Thus did the Romans become masters of Carthage in Iberia.” Chapter 59 in Book VI.: > BOOK X (11/35) · passage 11 · cos 0.54
“sent forward his cavalry, to annoy and retard their rear, followed close after with his legions. Not a moment passed in which their rear was not engaged with our horse. LXXIX.--Their manner of fighting was this: the light cohorts closed their rear, and frequently made a stand on the level grounds.”
Julius Caesar — "De Bello Gallico" and Other Commentaries · Commentaries composed during Caesar's Gallic campaigns (and later civil conflict), 58–52 BCE, with additional commentarial material through 49 BCE. · Gallia Comata (central Gaul, Roman campaign base territories) · primary [15]
“sent forward his cavalry, to annoy and retard their rear, followed close after with his legions. Not a moment passed in which their rear was not engaged with our horse. LXXIX.--Their manner of fighting was this: the light cohorts closed their rear, and frequently made a stand on the level grounds. If they had a mountain to ascend, the very nature of the place readily secured them from any danger; for the advanced guards, from the rising grounds, protected the rest in their ascent.” C.W. Bateman, 1882. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, translated by T. Rice Holmes, London, 1908 (see also Holmes' Caesar's Conquest of > BOOK I (30/34) · passage 207 · cos 0.60
“by its Jewish inhabitants, was burnt by our angry soldiers. And afterwards the emperor proceeded further on, being elated at the manifest protection, as he deemed it, of the Deity. 2.”
Ammianus Marcellinus — The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus · c. 390s CE · Antioch (modern Antakya), Roman Syria · primary [13]
“by its Jewish inhabitants, was burnt by our angry soldiers. And afterwards the emperor proceeded further on, being elated at the manifest protection, as he deemed it, of the Deity. 2. And when he had reached Maogamalcha, a city of great size and surrounded with strong walls, he pitched his tent, and took anxious care that his camp should not be surprised by any sudden attack of the Persian cavalry; whose courage in the open plains is marvellously dreaded by the surrounding nations. 3. And when he had made his arrangements, he himself, with an escort of a few light troops, went forth on foot to reconnoitre the position of a city by a close personal examination; but he fell into a dangerous snare from which he with difficulty escaped with his life. 4.” C.D. YONGE, M.A. > BOOK XXIV. (8/17) · passage 230 · cos 0.55
“The emperor, to comfort his soldiers who were made anxious by these events, ordered the prisoners who were of slender make, as the Persians usually are, and who were now more than usually emaciated, to be brought before the army; and looking at our men he said, "Behold what those warlike spirits consider men, little ugly dirty goats; and creatures who, as many events have shown, throw away their arms and take to flight before they can come to blows." 2.”
Ammianus Marcellinus — The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus · c. 390s CE · Antioch (modern Antakya), Roman Syria · primary [16]
“§ 1. The emperor, to comfort his soldiers who were made anxious by these events, ordered the prisoners who were of slender make, as the Persians usually are, and who were now more than usually emaciated, to be brought before the army; and looking at our men he said, "Behold what those warlike spirits consider men, little ugly dirty goats; and creatures who, as many events have shown, throw away their arms and take to flight before they can come to blows." 2.” C.D. YONGE, M.A. > BOOK XXIV. (17/17) · passage 239 · cos 0.55
“But when the demand was repeated over and over again in the camp, and the soldiers with shouts and great eagerness began to threaten violence, the order was given very unwillingly that the Gauls, mingled with the northern Germans, should lead the way into the river, in order that if they were carried away by the violence of the stream the obstinacy of the rest might be shaken; or on the other hand, if they accomplished the passage in safety the rest might attempt it with more confidence.”
Ammianus Marcellinus — The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus · c. 390s CE · Antioch (modern Antakya), Roman Syria · primary [18]
“13. But when the demand was repeated over and over again in the camp, and the soldiers with shouts and great eagerness began to threaten violence, the order was given very unwillingly that the Gauls, mingled with the northern Germans, should lead the way into the river, in order that if they were carried away by the violence of the stream the obstinacy of the rest might be shaken; or on the other hand, if they accomplished the passage in safety the rest might attempt it with more confidence. 14. And men were selected suited to such an enterprise, who from their childhood had been accustomed in their native land to cross the greatest rivers.” C.D. YONGE, M.A. > BOOK XXV. (13/21) · passage 252 · cos 0.55
“side: on ours, Remora, Victor, and Bellovædius, tribunes of distinguished legions: and on that of the enemy, one of their chief nobles named Bineses, and three other satraps of note. 14. So peace was made for thirty years, and ratified by solemn oaths; and we, returning by another line of march, because the parts near the river were rugged and difficult, suffered severely for want of water and provisions. VIII. § 1.”
Ammianus Marcellinus — The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus · c. 390s CE · Antioch (modern Antakya), Roman Syria · primary [28]
“side: on ours, Remora, Victor, and Bellovædius, tribunes of distinguished legions: and on that of the enemy, one of their chief nobles named Bineses, and three other satraps of note. 14. So peace was made for thirty years, and ratified by solemn oaths; and we, returning by another line of march, because the parts near the river were rugged and difficult, suffered severely for want of water and provisions. VIII. § 1.” C.D. YONGE, M.A. > BOOK XXV. (15/21) · passage 254 · cos 0.54
“therefore, when things stand thus, I consider that it befits you all to bear in mind not only the enemy but also your own Lord and so enter this battle." After Azarethes also had uttered these words of exhortation, he stationed the phalanx opposite his opponents, assigning the Persians the right wing and the Saracens the left. Straightway both sides began the fight, and the battle was exceedingly fierce.”
Procopius of Caesarea — History of the Wars, Books I and II: The Persian War · c. 545–555 CE (composition of History of the Wars, Books I–II, covering the Persian war material) · Constantinople · primary [67]
“therefore, when things stand thus, I consider that it befits you all to bear in mind not only the enemy but also your own Lord and so enter this battle." After Azarethes also had uttered these words of exhortation, he stationed the phalanx opposite his opponents, assigning the Persians the right wing and the Saracens the left. Straightway both sides began the fight, and the battle was exceedingly fierce. For the arrows, shot from either side in very great numbers, caused great loss of life in both armies, while some placed themselves in the interval between the armies and made a display of valorous deeds against each other, and especially among the Persians they were falling by the arrows in great numbers.” BOOK I.--THE PERSIAN WAR 1 > BOOK I (52/70) · passage 56 · cos 0.49
“Each of them used to eat a baked sheep, and ten fowls dressed with sweetmeats, and ten pounds of sweetmeats besides, and was presented with a quantity of food carried away from the feast to his house, together with a large sum of money.”
Anonymous (compiled medieval Arabic collection); translated by Edward William Lane — The Thousand and One Nights, Vol. I. · c. 9th-15th century CE (compiled); translated 1838-1841 · Cairo, Egypt · primary [38]
“Two such feasts, given on the festival after Ramaḍán and on the "great festival," cost four thousand deenárs, or about two thousand pounds sterling.--Two military officers, named Ibn-Fáïz and Ed-Deylemee, distinguished themselves at these feasts in a very remarkable manner. Each of them used to eat a baked sheep, and ten fowls dressed with sweetmeats, and ten pounds of sweetmeats besides, and was presented with a quantity of food carried away from the feast to his house, together with a large sum of money. One of them had been a prisoner at 'Asḳalán; and after he had remained there some time, the person into whose power he had fallen jestingly told him that if he would eat a calf belonging to him, the flesh of which weighed several hundred-weights, he would emancipate him.” CHAPTER I. > CHAPTER VIII. (66/72) · passage 510 · cos 0.52
“Proud Marsilies this message bids me say: Much hath he sought to find salvation's way; Out of his wealth meet presents would he make, Lions and bears, and greyhounds leashed on chain, Thousand mewed hawks, sev'n hundred dromedrays, Four hundred mules his silver shall convey, Fifty wagons you'll need to bear away Golden besants, such store of proved assay, Wherewith full tale your soldiers you can pay.”
Anonymous (Old French epic) — The Song of Roland · perhaps mid-11th century (c.) · West/central France (Old French epic composition; precise locality unknown) · primary [79]
“IX The foremost word of all Blancandrin spake, And to the King: "May God preserve you safe, The All Glorious, to Whom ye're bound to pray! Proud Marsilies this message bids me say: Much hath he sought to find salvation's way; Out of his wealth meet presents would he make, Lions and bears, and greyhounds leashed on chain, Thousand mewed hawks, sev'n hundred dromedrays, Four hundred mules his silver shall convey, Fifty wagons you'll need to bear away Golden besants, such store of proved assay, Wherewith full tale your soldiers you can pay. Now in this land you've been too long a day Hie you to France, return again to Aix; Thus saith my Lord, he'll follow too that way." That Emperour t'wards God his arms he raised Lowered his head, began to meditate. AOI.” (2/54) · passage 1
“bulwarks of the ships garnished. Every one looked to his antis, such as he should use, for well each man knew that full soon he would have need of them. The sailors weighed the anchors, and spread the sails to the wind, and God gave them a good wind, such as was convenient to them. Thus they passed before Constantinople, and so near to the walls and towers that we shot at many of their vessels.”
Geoffroi de Villehardouin — Memoirs or Chronicle of the Fourth Crusade and the Conquest of Constantinople · early 13th century (composition after 1203/1204) · Troyes, France · primary [49]
“bulwarks of the ships garnished. Every one looked to his antis, such as he should use, for well each man knew that full soon he would have need of them. The sailors weighed the anchors, and spread the sails to the wind, and God gave them a good wind, such as was convenient to them. Thus they passed before Constantinople, and so near to the walls and towers that we shot at many of their vessels. There were so many people on the walls and towers that it seemed as if there could be no more people (in the world). Then did God our Lord set to naught the counsel of the day before, and keep us from sailing to the islands: that counsel fell to naught as if none had ever heard thereof. For lo, our ships made for the mainland as straight as ever they could, and took port before a palace of the Emperor Alexius, at a place called Chalcedon.” (22/61) · passage 21 · cos 0.51
“On their backs they wear armour of cuirbouly, prepared from buffalo and other hides, which is very strong.{1} They are excellent soldiers, and passing valiant in battle. They are also more capable of hardships than other nations; for many a time, if need be, they will go for a month without any supply of food, living only on the milk of their mares and on such game as their bows may win them.”
Marco Polo — The Travels of Marco Polo — Volume 1 · c. 1298 (Book of Marco Polo) · Venice, Italy (Republic of Venice) · primary [9]
“Their arms are bows and arrows, sword and mace; but above all the bow, for they are capital archers, indeed the best that are known. On their backs they wear armour of cuirbouly, prepared from buffalo and other hides, which is very strong.{1} They are excellent soldiers, and passing valiant in battle. They are also more capable of hardships than other nations; for many a time, if need be, they will go for a month without any supply of food, living only on the milk of their mares and on such game as their bows may win them. Their horses also will subsist entirely on the grass of the plains, so that there is no need to carry store of barley or straw or oats; and they are very docile to their riders. These, in case of need, will abide on horseback the livelong night, armed at all points, while the horse will be continually grazing.” C.S.I., Major-General KEYES, C.B., Dr. GEORGE BIRDWOOD, Mr. BURGESS, of > CHAPTER LIV. (1/2) · passage 432 · cos 0.58
“nothing hurt it in such manner; yet it might peradventure bunch or batter it; nevertheless that inconvenience were quickly to be redressed by the hammer. But whither am I slipped?”
Jean Froissart — Chronicle and Romance: Froissart, Malory, Holinshed · c. 1369–early 15th c.; revised and enlarged to the end of his life · Valenciennes · primary [35]
“nothing hurt it in such manner; yet it might peradventure bunch or batter it; nevertheless that inconvenience were quickly to be redressed by the hammer. But whither am I slipped? The gentlemen and merchants keep much about one rate, and each of them contenteth himself with four, five, or six dishes, when they have but small resort, or peradventure with one, or two, or three at the most, when they have no strangers to accompany them at their tables. And yet their servants have their ordinary diet assigned, beside such as is left at their master's boards, and not appointed to be brought thither the second time, which nevertheless is often seen, generally in venison, lamb, or some especial dish, whereon the merchantman himself liketh to feed when it is cold, or peradventure for sundry causes incident to the feeder is better so than if it were warm or hot.” CHAPTER > CHAPTER VI (5/15) · passage 202 · cos 0.53
“In old time these north Britons did give themselves universally to great abstinence, and in time of wars their soldiers would often feed but once or twice at the most in two or three days (especially if they held themselves in secret, or could have no issue out of their bogs and marshes, through the presence of the enemy), and in this distress they used to eat a certain kind of confection, whereof so much as a bean would qualify their hunger above common expectation.”
Jean Froissart — Chronicle and Romance: Froissart, Malory, Holinshed · c. 1369–early 15th c.; revised and enlarged to the end of his life · Valenciennes · primary [46]
“But, alas, it was soon forgotten! In old time these north Britons did give themselves universally to great abstinence, and in time of wars their soldiers would often feed but once or twice at the most in two or three days (especially if they held themselves in secret, or could have no issue out of their bogs and marshes, through the presence of the enemy), and in this distress they used to eat a certain kind of confection, whereof so much as a bean would qualify their hunger above common expectation. In woods moreover they lived with herbs and roots, or, if these shifts served not through want of such provision at hand, then used they to creep into the water or said moorish plots up unto the chins, and there remain a long time, only to qualify the heats of their stomachs by violence, which otherwise would have wrought and been ready to oppress them for hunger and want of sustenance.” CHAPTER > CHAPTER VI (2/15) · passage 199 · cos 0.50
“South coast countrymen still eat *nuntions* and not *luncheons*.--W. [7] Here follows a disquisition upon the table practices of the ancients.--W. With us the nobility, gentry, and students do ordinarily go to dinner at eleven before noon, and to supper at five, or between five and six at afternoon. The merchants dine and sup seldom before twelve at noon, and six at night, especially in London.”
Jean Froissart — Chronicle and Romance: Froissart, Malory, Holinshed · c. 1369–early 15th c.; revised and enlarged to the end of his life · Valenciennes · primary [58]
“[6] This word is not obsolete. South coast countrymen still eat *nuntions* and not *luncheons*.--W. [7] Here follows a disquisition upon the table practices of the ancients.--W. With us the nobility, gentry, and students do ordinarily go to dinner at eleven before noon, and to supper at five, or between five and six at afternoon. The merchants dine and sup seldom before twelve at noon, and six at night, especially in London. The husbandmen dine also at high noon as they call it, and sup at seven or eight; but out of the term in our universities the scholars dine at ten. As for the poorest sort they generally dine and sup when they may, so that to talk of their order of repast it were but a needless matter.” CHAPTER > CHAPTER VI (15/15) · passage 212 · cos 0.50
“[3] A famine at hand is first seen in the horse-manger, when the poor do fall to horse corn.--H.”
Jean Froissart — Chronicle and Romance: Froissart, Malory, Holinshed · c. 1369–early 15th c.; revised and enlarged to the end of his life · Valenciennes · primary [63]
“[3] A famine at hand is first seen in the horse-manger, when the poor do fall to horse corn.--H. Of bread made of wheat we have sundry sorts daily brought to the table, whereof the first and most excellent is the manchet, which we commonly call white bread, in Latin *primarius panis*, whereof Budeus also speaketh, in his first book *De asse*; and our good workmen deliver commonly such proportion that of the flour of one bushel with another they make forty cast of manchet, of which every loaf weigheth eight ounces into the oven, and six ounces out, as I have been informed. The second is the cheat or wheaten bread, so named because the colour thereof resembleth the grey or yellowish wheat, being clean and well dressed, and out of this is the coarsest of the bran (usually called gurgeons or pollard) taken.” CHAPTER > CHAPTER VI (10/15) · passage 207 · cos 0.50
“I had it forged in mine own country, and all my soldiers are armed therewith. In plain language, it is a hard heart, a heart as hard as iron, and as much past feeling as a stone; the which if you get and keep, neither mercy shall win you, nor judgment fright you. This therefore, is a piece of armour most necessary for all to put on that hate Shaddai, and that would fight against him under my banner. ‘3.”
John Bunyan — The Holy War, Made by King Shaddai Upon Diabolus, for the Regaining of the Metropolis of the World; Or, The Losing and Taking Again of the Town of Mansoul · Probably composed c. 1665–1682 (exact year unknown); based on Bunyan’s life and the 1682 first publication cited in the preface. · Bedford, England · primary [80]
“My breastplate is a breastplate of iron. I had it forged in mine own country, and all my soldiers are armed therewith. In plain language, it is a hard heart, a heart as hard as iron, and as much past feeling as a stone; the which if you get and keep, neither mercy shall win you, nor judgment fright you. This therefore, is a piece of armour most necessary for all to put on that hate Shaddai, and that would fight against him under my banner. ‘3. My sword is a tongue that is set on fire of hell, and that can bend itself to speak evil of Shaddai, his Son, his ways, and people. Use this; it has been tried a thousand times twice told. Whoever hath it, keeps it, and makes that use of it as I would have him, can never be conquered by mine enemy.” (24/176) · passage 23
“Whoever treats this miserable way of feeding soldiers as a matter of no moment, and points to what Frederick the Great did with soldiers subsisted in this manner, only takes a partial view of the matter.”
Carl von Clausewitz — On War · c. 1816–1830 (work compiled/rewritten across these years) · Prussia · primary [3]
“The soldier fed on a wretched pittance of bread, moved about like a shadow, and no prospect of a change for the better comforted him under his privations. Whoever treats this miserable way of feeding soldiers as a matter of no moment, and points to what Frederick the Great did with soldiers subsisted in this manner, only takes a partial view of the matter. The power of enduring privations is one of the finest virtues in a soldier, and without it no army is animated with the true military spirit; but such privation must be of a temporary kind, commanded by the force of circumstances, and not the consequence of a wretchedly bad system, or of a parsimonious abstract calculation of the smallest ration that a man can exist upon. When such is the case the powers of the men individually will always deteriorate physically and morally.” BOOK I. ON THE NATURE OF WAR > CHAPTER XIV. Subsistence (2/12) · passage 245 · cos 0.67
“Without troubling themselves about magazines, and still less about such an organisation as the artificial clockwork of which we have spoken, by which the different divisions of the transport service went round like a wheel, the leading spirits of the revolution sent their soldiers into the field, forced their generals to fight, subsisted, reinforced their armies, and kept alive the war by a system of exaction, and of helping themselves to all they required by robbery and plunder.”
Carl von Clausewitz — On War · c. 1816–1830 (work compiled/rewritten across these years) · Prussia · primary [8]
“When the French Revolution suddenly brought again upon the war stage a national army, the means which governments could command were found insufficient, and the whole system of war, which had its origin in the limited extent of these means, and found again its security in this limitation, fell to pieces, and of course in the downfall of the whole was included that of the branch of which we are now speaking, the system of subsistence.” BOOK I. ON THE NATURE OF WAR > CHAPTER XIV. Subsistence (3/12) · passage 246 · cos 0.59
“marching in three columns contiguous to each other, we should require to take up a front six miles in breadth in case three roads could be found within that breadth. If several columns follow one another into these cantonments, then special measures must be adopted by the civil authorities, and in that way there can be no great difficulty in obtaining all that is required for a day or two more.”
Carl von Clausewitz — On War · c. 1816–1830 (work compiled/rewritten across these years) · Prussia · primary [11]
“marching in three columns contiguous to each other, we should require to take up a front six miles in breadth in case three roads could be found within that breadth. If several columns follow one another into these cantonments, then special measures must be adopted by the civil authorities, and in that way there can be no great difficulty in obtaining all that is required for a day or two more. Therefore if the above 90,000 are followed the day after by a like number, even these last would suffer no want; this makes up the large number of 150,000 combatants.” BOOK I. ON THE NATURE OF WAR > CHAPTER XIV. Subsistence (4/12) · passage 247 · cos 0.64
“is a moment’s halt gathers provisions from distant localities, so that at any moment we can pass over from the system of quartering on the inhabitants to a different system. Subsisting in cantonments has the immense advantage that hardly any transport is required, and that it is done in the shortest time, but certainly it supposes as a prior condition that cantonments can be provided for all the troops.”
Carl von Clausewitz — On War · c. 1816–1830 (work compiled/rewritten across these years) · Prussia · primary [12]
“is a moment’s halt gathers provisions from distant localities, so that at any moment we can pass over from the system of quartering on the inhabitants to a different system. Subsisting in cantonments has the immense advantage that hardly any transport is required, and that it is done in the shortest time, but certainly it supposes as a prior condition that cantonments can be provided for all the troops. 2.—Subsistence through exactions enforced by the troops themselves. If a single battalion occupies a camp, this camp may be placed in the vicinity of some villages, and these may receive notice to furnish subsistence; then the method of subsistence would not differ essentially from the preceding mode.” BOOK I. ON THE NATURE OF WAR > CHAPTER XIV. Subsistence (5/12) · passage 248 · cos 0.61
“Masses of labourers, crowded into the factory, are organised like soldiers. As privates of the industrial army they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois State; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the over-looker, and, above all, by the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself.”
Karl Marx — The Communist Manifesto · London, 1847 (written for publication as a manifesto) · London, England · primary [72]
“Modern industry has converted the little workshop of the patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist. Masses of labourers, crowded into the factory, are organised like soldiers. As privates of the industrial army they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois State; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the over-looker, and, above all, by the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the more petty, the more hateful and the more embittering it is. The less the skill and exertion of strength implied in manual labour, in other words, the more modern industry becomes developed, the more is the labour of men superseded by that of women.” (5/18) · passage 4

By period

metadata clusters — composition century, never content

2nd century BCE · 6 Polybius describes practical camp logistics tied to food: the Quaestor stops the Romans’ pay “to [pay] the price of their corn and clothes,” and Roman camp-breaking is synchronized by rank [37]. Elsewhere he gives a vivid constraint-based warning about water/drinking behavior near encampments, but without listing a specific “menu” [4].
1st century BCE · 15 The clearest “what they ate” evidence comes from Caesar’s campaign note that his army had consumed “all the corn far and near,” producing distress—implying soldiers depended on local corn supplies [2]. Strabo adds a water-related episode at encampment distances, again not a menu but showing how thirst and drinking could become lethal [45].
1st century · 14 These sources do not give soldier diet on campaign; they discuss discipline, morale, and other battlefield themes rather than food items or rations [33,1,5,10,17,89].
6th century · 8 Procopius provides the most concrete rationing detail: bread for camp “must of necessity be put twice into the oven,” and when distributed soldiers received “one-fourth more than the usual weight” due to lighter loaves [23]. He also reports soldiers eating “gourds” they found growing near where they began disorderly actions [62].
16th–18th century · 15 The cluster includes some campaign-travel hunger references, but not a systematic list of rations: Díaz notes they hoped to “get something to eat” while searching for provisions [20], and later he says they “ate our supper” after returning when “quite fatigued and hungry” [65].
19th–20th century · 16 Lewis’s expedition narrative records scarcity and hunting outcomes: when game failed, they had “nothing to eat” [25], and at one point there is mention of a “scanty meal” with a list of what was seen (e.g., pigeons, hares, grasshoppers, ground lizards) though no direct confirmation those items were consumed [50]. Clausewitz discusses subsistence and exaction/robbery as systems of obtaining what soldiers required, without specifying particular foods [8,12].